Early and precise diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's (PD) is crucial for slowing their progression and enhancing patient outcomes. Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as promising biomarkers due to their ability to reflect the diseases' pathology, yet their low abundance poses significant detection hurdles. This review article delves into the burgeoning field of electrochemical biosensors, designed for the precise detection of exosomal miRNA biomarkers. Electrochemical biosensors offer a compelling solution, combining the sensitivity required to detect low-abundance biomarkers with the specificity needed to discern miRNA profiles distinctive to neural pathological states. We explore the operational principles of these biosensors, including the electrochemical transduction mechanisms that facilitate miRNA detection. The review also summarizes advancements in nanotechnology, signal enhancement, bioreceptor anchoring, and microfluidic integration that improve sensor accuracy. The evidence of their use in neurodegenerative disease diagnosis is analyzed, focusing on the clinical impact, diagnostic precision, and obstacles faced in practical applications. Their potential integration into point-of-care testing and regulatory considerations for their market entry are discussed. Looking toward the future, the article highlights forthcoming innovations that might revolutionize early diagnostic processes. Electrochemical biosensors, with their impressive sensitivity, specificity, and point-of-care compatibility, are on track to become instrumental in the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases, possibly transforming patient care and prognosis.

Background: Radiotherapy is a widely used clinical tool for tumor treatment but can cause systemic toxicity if excessive radiation is administered. Although numerous nanoparticles have been developed as radiosensitizers to reduce the required dose of X-ray irradiation, they often have limitations, such as passive reliance on radiation-induced apoptosis in tumors, and little consider the unique tumor microenvironment that contributes radiotherapy resistance. Methods: In this study, we developed and characterized a novel self-assembled nanoparticle containing dysprosium ion and manganese ion (Dy/Mn-P). We systematically investigated the potential of Dy/Mn-P nanoparticles (NPs) as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) amplifier and radiosensitizer to enhance radiation therapy and modulate the tumor microenvironment at the cellular level. Additionally, we evaluated the effect of Dy/Mn-P on the stimulator of interferon genes (STING), an innate immune signaling pathway. Results: Physicochemical analysis demonstrated the prepared Dy/Mn-P NPs exhibited excellent dispersibility and stability, and degraded rapidly at lower pH values. Furthermore, Dy/Mn-P was internalized by cells and exhibited selective toxicity towards tumor cells compared to normal cells. Our findings also revealed that Dy/Mn-P NPs improved the tumor microenvironment and significantly increased ROS generation under ionizing radiation, resulting in a ~70% increase in ROS levels compared to radiation therapy alone. This enhanced ROS generation inhibited ~92% of cell clone formation and greatly contributed to cytoplasmic DNA exposure. Subsequently, the activation of the STING pathway was observed, leading to the secretion of pro-inflammatory immune factors and maturation of dendritic cells (DCs). Conclusion: Our study demonstrates that Dy/Mn-P NPs can potentiate tumor radiotherapy by improving the tumor microenvironment and increasing endogenous ROS levels within the tumor. Furthermore, Dy/Mn-P can amplify the activation of the STING pathway during radiotherapy, thereby triggering an anti-tumor immune response. This novel approach has the potential to expand the application of radiotherapy in tumor treatment.

Oral diseases represent a major global health burden, underscoring the need for sensitive, accessible, and noninvasive diagnostic technologies. Electrochemical biosensing offers a powerful route for point‐of‐care oral health monitoring by translating biomolecular interactions in saliva, gingival crevicular fluid, and exhaled breath condensate into quantifiable electrical signals. This review systematically discusses electrochemical biosensing strategies for oral disease diagnosis, beginning with the structure and operating mechanisms of electrochemical sensors and then summarizing their applications in detecting disease‐related nucleic acids, proteins, pathogens, and other molecules. We further examine feasible strategies for early diagnosis, including signal amplification methods based on nanomaterials, enzyme catalysis, nucleic acid amplification, chemical deposition, and cascade integration, as well as antifouling interfaces designed to maintain stable sensing performance in complex oral biofluids. Particular attention is given to advanced transistor architectures, especially organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs), which offer intrinsic signal amplification and high‐gain readout for low‐abundance biomarkers. Finally, we outline current challenges, future directions, and translational opportunities for electrochemical biosensing technologies, providing a roadmap toward precision dentistry and modern oral health management.

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are extensively used in agriculture but pose significant health risks because of their potential residues in food products. However, conventional analytical methods often require centralized instrumentation, trained personnel, and time‐consuming sample processing, limiting their suitability for portable, affordable, and on‐site detection. Here, we report a laser‐induced graphene (LIG)‐based electrochemical biosensor incorporating a cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc)‐modified antifouling interface for the on‐site detection of OPs. The LIG electrode offers high electrical conductivity, a large electroactive surface area, and an integrated quasi‐reference electrode, enabling efficient monitoring of the Co ^{2 +} /Co ⁺ redox cycle for quantitative OP detection. The engineered antifouling nanocomposite suppresses nonspecific adsorption while maintaining efficient electron transfer, allowing reliable detection of chlorpyrifos (CPF) over a linear range of 10–1600 ppb with a limit of detection of 3.7 ppb. Coupled with a portable potentiostat, the sensor provides a low‐cost, field‐deployable platform capable of robust operation in complex food matrices. This work offers a practical approach for on‐site food safety monitoring and underscores the potential of LIG‐based electrochemical sensors for real‐world agricultural and environmental applications.

Early blood‐based diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD) remains challenging owing to the lack of reliable composite biomarkers and rapid, sensitive, and cost‐effective detection platforms. Here, we report a bioelectronic sensor based on an organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) driven by a laser‐induced graphene (LIG) array. By integrating an alternating‐current (AC)‐mediated LIG rapid incubation system (LRIS), the platform enables multiplexed protein profiling directly from clinical samples within approximately 6 min, with attomolar‐level detection limits. We identify the glycoprotein non‐metastatic melanoma protein B (GPNMB)/granulin (GRN) ratio as a sensitive composite biomarker of neuroinflammatory dysregulation, showing pronounced alterations at early disease stages and complementing α‐synuclein for PD assessment. In PD mouse models spanning mild to severe stages ( n = 32), this ratio correlated with disease progression and enabled the detection of mild neuronal loss. Clinical validation in healthy individuals and patients with PD or prodromal PD ( n = 54) showed that the GPNMB/GRN ratio distinguished patients with PD from healthy controls with 80% sensitivity, 90% specificity, and 85% accuracy. Incorporating α‐synuclein further improved diagnostic accuracy. This biomarker–platform strategy provides a rapid, ultrasensitive, and scalable framework for blood‐based PD screening and early risk assessment.