Atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3), previously known as C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR7), has emerged as a key player in several biological processes particularly during development. Its CXCL11 and CXCL12 scavenging activity and atypical signalling properties together with a new array of other non-chemokine ligands have established ACKR3 as a main regulator of physiological processes at steady state and during inflammation. Here, we present a comprehensive review of ACKR3 expression in mammalian tissues in search of a possible connection with the receptor function. Besides the reported roles of ACKR3 during development, we also discuss the potential contribution of ACKR3 to the function of the immune system, focusing on the myeloid lineage.

Dendritic cells (DCs) encompass several cell subsets that collaborate to initiate and regulate immune responses. Proper DC localization determines their function and requires the tightly controlled action of chemokine receptors. All DC subsets express CXCR4, but the genuine contribution of this receptor to their biology has been overlooked. We addressed this question using natural CXCR4 mutants resistant to CXCL12-induced desensitization and harboring a gain of function that cause the warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, infections, and myelokathexis (WHIM) syndrome (WS), a rare immunodeficiency associated with high susceptibility to the pathogenesis of human papillomavirus (HPV). We report a reduction in the number of circulating plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) in WHIM patients, whereas that of conventional DCs is preserved. This pattern was reproduced in an original mouse model of WS, enabling us to show that the circulating pDC defect can be corrected upon CXCR4 blockade and that pDC differentiation and function are preserved, despite CXCR4 dysfunction. We further identified proper CXCR4 signaling as a critical checkpoint for Langerhans cell and DC migration from the skin to lymph nodes, with corollary alterations of their activation state and tissue inflammation in a model of HPV-induced dysplasia. Beyond providing new hypotheses to explain the susceptibility of WHIM patients to HPV pathogenesis, this study shows that proper CXCR4 signaling establishes a migration threshold that controls DC egress from CXCL12-containing environments and highlights the critical and subset-specific contribution of CXCR4 signal termination to DC biology.

Viral vector delivery of gene therapy represents a promising approach for the treatment of numerous retinal diseases. Adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) constitute the primary gene delivery platform; however, their limited cargo capacity restricts the delivery of several clinically relevant retinal genes. In this study, we explore the feasibility of employing high-capacity adenoviral vectors (HC-AdVs) as alternative delivery vehicles, which, with a capacity of up to 36 kb, can potentially accommodate all known retinal gene coding sequences. We utilized HC-AdVs based on the classical adenoviral type 5 (AdV5) and on a fiber-modified AdV5.F50 version, both engineered to deliver a 29.6 kb vector genome encoding a fluorescent reporter construct. The tropism of these HC-AdVs was evaluated in an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived human retinal organoid model. Both vector types demonstrated robust transduction efficiency, with sustained transgene expression observed for up to 110 days post-transduction. Moreover, we found efficient transduction of photoreceptors and Müller glial cells, without evidence of reactive gliosis or loss of photoreceptor cell nuclei. However, an increase in the thickness of the photoreceptor outer nuclear layer was observed at 110 days post-transduction, suggesting potential unfavorable effects on Müller glial or photoreceptor cells associated with HC-AdV transduction and/or long-term reporter overexpression. These findings suggest that while HC-AdVs show promise for large retinal gene delivery, further investigations are required to assess their long-term safety and efficacy.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are key players in the control of tolerance and immunity. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are known to regulate DC function by promoting their tolerogenic differentiation through the induction of inhibitory ligands, cytokines, and enzymes. The GC-induced effects in DCs were shown to critically depend on increased expression of the Glucocorticoid-Induced Leucine Zipper protein (GILZ). GILZ expression levels were further shown to control antigen-presenting cell function, as well as T-cell priming capacity of DCs. However, the pattern of GILZ expression in DC subsets across tissues remains poorly described, as well as the modulation of its expression levels in different pathological settings. To fill in this knowledge gap, we conducted an exhaustive analysis of GILZ relative expression levels in DC subsets from various tissues using multiparametric flow cytometry. This study was performed at steady state, in the context of acute as well as chronic skin inflammation, and in a model of cancer. Our results show the heterogeneity of GILZ expression among DC subsets as well as the complexity of its modulation, that varies in a cell subset- and context-specific manner. Considering the contribution of GILZ in the control of DC functions and its potential as an immune checkpoint in cancer settings, these results are of high relevance for optimal GILZ targeting in therapeutic strategies.

Viral vector delivery of gene therapy represents a promising approach for the treatment of numerous retinal diseases. Adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) constitute the primary gene delivery platform; however, their limited cargo capacity restricts the delivery of several clinically relevant retinal genes. In this study, we explore the feasibility of employing high-capacity adenoviral vectors (HC-AdVs) as alternative delivery vehicles, which, with a capacity of up to 36 kb, can potentially accommodate all known retinal gene coding sequences. We utilised HC-AdVs based on the classical adenoviral type 5 (AdV5) and on a fibre-modified AdV5 version, both engineered to deliver a 29.6 kb vector genome encoding a fluorescent reporter construct. The tropism of these HC-AdVs was evaluated in an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived human retinal organoid model. Both vector types demonstrated robust transduction efficiency, with sustained transgene expression observed for up to 110 days post-transduction. Moreover, we found efficient transduction of photoreceptors and Müller glial cells, without evidence of reactive gliosis or loss of photoreceptor cell nuclei. However, an increase in the thickness of the photoreceptor outer nuclear layer was observed at 110 days post-transduction, suggesting potential unfavourable effects on Müller glial or photoreceptor cells associated with HC-AdV transduction and/or long-term reporter overexpression. These findings suggest that while HC-AdVs show promise for large retinal gene delivery, further investigations are required to assess their long-term safety and efficacy.

Interactions hôte-virus : la chimiokine CXCL12 et ses récepteurs CXCR4 et ACKR3 dans le cycle de vie du papillomavirus humain et la carcinogènese associée: Membres épithéliotropes de notre virome, les papillomavirus humains (HPV) causent majoritairement des infections asymptomatiques ou bénignes, contrôlées par les mécanismes de défense de l'hôte à l’échelle épithélial et immunitaire. Néanmoins, l’infection persistante par certains HPV à haut risque (hrHPV) cancérogène peut conduire au développement de cancers. Ainsi, les hrHPV à tropisme muqueux causent 98% des cancers cervicaux, et sont impliqués dans un nombre croissant de cancers ano-génitaux et oropharyngés. Les vaccins prophylactiques sont efficaces pour prévenir les lésions associées aux hrHPV à tropisme muqueux, mais à l'heure actuelle, il n'existe aucun traitement antiviral pour une infection établie. Dans cette thèse de doctorat, nous avons cherché à étudier les facteurs de l’hôte impliqués dans le cycle de vie d’HPV et sa carcinogenèse à deux niveaux : ceux du kératinocyte infecté et du système immunitaire. Des études chez certains patients immunodéficients (syndrome de WHIM, WS) présentant une susceptibilité sélective à la pathogénèse HPV ont identifié la chimiokine CXCL12 et CXCR4, son récepteur couplé aux protéines G (dont les mutations causent le WS) comme facteurs de contrôle du cycle de vie de ces virus. CXCL12/CXCR4 ainsi que ACKR3, le récepteur-leurre de CXCL12, peuvent moduler à la fois les réponses antivirales épithéliales et immunitaires. Nous avons d'abord étudié la contribution d'ACKR3 au cycle de vie d’HPV dans des cultures 3D de cellules épithéliales humaines (3D-EpC), seul modèle permettant la réplication d’HPV. Nos résultats indiquent que l'activité accrue d'ACKR3 présente un potentiel pro-oncogène puisqu'elle déplace le cycle de vie productif d’HPV vers l'oncogenèse et que le blocage d'ACKR3 pourrait être une approche thérapeutique attrayante pour favoriser la réplication d’HPV. Par la suite, nous avons étudié les conséquences fonctionnelles du cycle de vie productif d’HPV dans la communication intercellulaire, en mettant en place la technique FLIP dans les 3D-EpC. Enfin, nous avons étudié l'impact d’une mutation de CXCR4 associée au WS au niveau des cellules immunitaires cutanées dans le contexte de la carcinogenèse induite par HPV. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence le rôle de CXCR4 dans la distribution, l’activation et la migration des cellules dendritiques dermales et des cellules de Langerhans ; leur possible dérégulation dans le contexte du WS pouvant contribuer à la sensibilité sélective des patients à la pathogenèse HPV. En conclusion, ce travail fournit des clés mécanistiques sur les interactions HPV-hôte aux niveaux épithélial et immunitaire. Il révèle le rôle central d'ACKR3 dans la réponse intrinsèque des kératinocytes envers HPV et approfondit nos connaissances sur le rôle de l’axe CXCL12/CXCR4 dans l'immunité cutanée à l’homéostasie et dans la carcinogenèse HPV.