Objectives: In bioarchaeology, the concepts of resilience and frailty, and their quantification through indices, have gathered significant attention. This study is the first to apply, evaluate, and compare skeletal frailty indices and aims to trace frailty over time while identifying methodological challenges in their use on a sample representative of urban Milan's history.Materials and Methods: Two‐hundred fifty individuals from five historical periods over 2000 years in urban Milan, equally represented by estimated males and females, were analyzed. Three skeletal frailty indices were applied—the “Health Index” GHHP, “Skeletal Frailty Index” (SFI), and “Biological Index of Frailty” (BIF)—and their diachronic variations interpreted. Index values were compared to each other through Spearman's correlations, and frailty values were assessed by periods (overall and by estimated sex) and by estimated sex through ANOVA and General Linear Models.Results: Diachronic analyses revealed a gradual increase in frailty from the Roman era to the Late Middle Ages, which then progressively decreased, corroborating historical sources. While all methods identified the Late Middle Ages sample as the frailest, discrepancies arose when defining the least frail group, especially when considering estimated biological sex and age variables.Discussion: Our study found practical and conceptual limitations in the GHHP. Most noticeably, criteria for GHHP and SFI limited sample size (and consequently) representation, while the more inclusive BIF proved overly permissive, allowing direct comparisons between skeletons with differential preservation. This study highlights common challenges and prospects, defines common criteria to standardize methodologies, and further investigates the relevance of stress markers in relation to frailty.

Enamel hypoplasia (EH) is a stress marker commonly used in bioarcheological research to investigate health during growth. However, its analysis in contemporary samples allows for additional avenues of research, including comparison with medical records. The aim of the present research is to explore the influence of biological sex and socioeconomic status on the distribution of EH and examine the factors that contribute to the development of this defect. In this perspective, analysis of dentition was conducted on 132 individuals, with known information about age, biological sex, nationality, medical records, and socioeconomic status. Statistical analysis was conducted using Fisher’s test and the chi-square test. As a result, EH was observed more frequently among individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds, while a significant association was observed with socioeconomic status, evidencing a strong association between EH presence and structural vulnerability (chi-square, p = 0.04). The frequency of EH between sexes was not significant; however, a higher frequency was observed among males (chi-square, p = 0.94). We hypothesize that the impact of female biological buffering might be reduced in the European sample, as this result aligns with background information of the context. These results align with the research hypotheses and reinforce the multifactorial etiology of EH.

Harris lines are commonly used in bioarcheology to infer lifestyle in ancient populations; however, their etiology and identification parameters are still under debate. The aim of this study is to observe the distribution of the lesions in a contemporary clinical sample to address their association with etiological factors, age, biological sex, and biogeographical origin. The sample consisted of 561 living individuals from Italy ( n = 268) and Sri Lanka ( n = 293). Radiographic images of long bones (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula), and information on biological sex and age were collected. Statistical analysis was conducted using Fisher's test, chi‐square tests, and odds ratios. Harris lines were significantly more frequent in bones of the lower limb ( p < 0.001), and among Sri Lankan (32%) rather than Italian‐grown individuals (20%) ( p = 0.001). No statistically significant differences between sexes were observed ( p = 0.790). No linear trend was found in the distribution of the lesions among age groups; however, their presence was attested among the oldest individuals (>80 years), challenging assumptions about bone remodeling and the evanescence of Harris lines. Additionally, morphological variation in radiopaque lesions was documented. The equal distribution between sexes is coherent with the characteristics and the contextual information of the samples, where no sex‐based disparities are reported. This sheds new light on the impact of female biological buffering, as well as enforcing the interpretative role of Harris lines in detecting inequalities between females and males. The differences observed among the two geographical subgroups may be related to the socioeconomic context of growth, highlighting the capacity of Harris lines to reflect variations in access to resources.

This research investigates sex roles and labor in ancient Etruscan society, comparing and contrasting the bioarchaeological profile of human remains of five females and two males from the sacred area of the ‘monumental complex’ (Civita, Tarquinia). Despite the small sample size, analyses of entheseal changes, spinal and appendicular osteoarthrosis, Schmorl’s nodes, and dental wear reveal much higher frequencies of biomechanical stress markers compared to other coeval Etruscan sites as well as pre-Roman and Roman data. Both males and females exhibited evidence of repeated strenuous physical activity, but the degree of biomechanical stress in females was particularly striking, suggesting involvement in physically intensive tasks. The study also draws comparisons with Roman populations, highlighting the higher biomechanical stress among women living in the Etruscan society compared to Roman females. These findings challenge the assumption of strict sex divisions of labor in ancient societies, indicating that Etruscan women at Civita may have shared in physically demanding activities typically associated with men, such as agricultural labor, sports, or domestic production. While the sample is limited and precludes definitive conclusions, this study represents a rare bioarchaeological contribution to the study of Etruscan society, offering insight into their lived experiences. Moreover, it underscores the importance of valorizing this skeletal material to enrich our understanding of sex roles and labor in one of antiquity’s most enigmatic civilizations.

The integration of bioanthropology and funerary archaeology to investigate the life course, biological sex, and their representation in funerary contexts is applied to the study of the rural Roman necropolis of Contrada Nevola (I-IV AD; Corinaldo, Italy). Bioarchaeological data are integrated with the spatial distribution of tombs, grave goods, and burial types to assess how funerary practices were influenced by biological sex and age at death. The assemblage comprises 88 individuals, including 21 females and 28 males, divided into social age groups based on the life course reported by ancient sources (females: infantia, pueritia , fertility, fertility decline, menopause; males: infantia, pueritia, adulescentia, iuvenes, seniores, senes ). Statistical analyses included Fisher’s exact tests and Kaplan–Meier survival analysis. Age-at-death was similar between the sexes; however, the distribution of mechanical stress markers differed, with males showing a higher frequency and a more uneven distribution. Female burials displayed greater complexity, particularly at older ages, whereas the opposite trend was observed among males. These findings suggest a sex-based differentiation in funerary representation, possibly related to social roles. Males appear more involved in mechanically strenuous activities, and the greater complexity of younger male burials may indicate early social recognition tied to productive and economic contributions. Conversely, the pattern observed in female burials may reflect evolving social roles and embodied family status, particularly following motherhood and widowhood. Overall, the results highlight how social identities were symbolically constructed and expressed through burial practices, shaped by both Roman cultural norms and local socio-economic dynamics. These findings remain preliminary, as the necropolis is still under excavation and a precise chronology has not yet been established for all tombs; however, an expanded dataset may confirm the trends proposed here.