The significant reduction in agricultural output and the decline in product quality are two of the most glaring negative impacts caused by plant pathogenic fungi (PPF). Furthermore, contaminated food or transit might introduce mycotoxins produced by PPF directly into the food chain. Eating food tainted with mycotoxin is extremely dangerous for both human and animal health. Using fungicides is the first choice to control PPF or their toxins in food. Fungicide resistance and its effects on the environment and public health are becoming more and more of a concern, despite the fact that chemical fungicides are used to limit PPF toxicity and control growth in crops. Fungicides induce target site alteration and efflux pump activation, and mutations in PPF result in resistance. As a result, global trends are shifting away from chemically manufactured pesticides and toward managing fungal plant diseases using various biocontrol techniques, tactics, and approaches. However, surveillance programs to monitor fungicide resistance and their environmental impact are much fewer compared to bacterial antibiotic resistance surveillance programs. In this review, we discuss the PPF that contributes to disease development in plants, the fungicides used against them, factors causing the spread of PPF and the emergence of new strains, the antifungal resistance mechanisms of PPF, health, the environmental impacts of fungicides, and the use of biocontrol agents (BCAs), antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and nanotechnologies to control PPF as a safe and eco-friendly alternative to fungicides.

Microbes produce a diverse range of secondary metabolites in response to various environmental factors and interspecies competition. This enables them to become superior in a particular environment. Bacilysin, a dipeptide antibiotic produced by Bacillus species, is active against a broad range of microorganisms. Because of its simple structure and excellent mode of action, i.e., through the inhibition of glucosamine 6-phosphate synthase, it has drawn the attention of researchers. In addition, it acts as a pleiotropic signaling molecule that affects different cellular activities. However, all Bacillus species are not capable of producing bacilysin. The biosynthesis of bacilysin by Bacillus species is not uniform throughout the population; specificity and heterogeneity at both the strain and species levels has been observed. This review discusses how bacilysin is biosynthesized by Bacillus species, the regulators of its biosynthesis, its importance in the host, and the abiotic factors affecting bacilysin production.

The economic impact of phytopathogenic bacteria on agriculture is staggering, costing billions of US dollars globally. Pseudomonas syringae is the top most phytopathogenic bacteria, having more than 60 pathovars, which cause bacteria speck in tomatoes, halo blight in beans, and so on. Although antibiotics or a combination of antibiotics are used to manage infectious diseases in plants, they are employed far less in agriculture compared to human and animal populations. Moreover, the majority of antibiotics used in plants are immediately washed away, leading to environmental damage to ecosystems and food chains. Due to the serious risk of antibiotic resistance (AR) and the potential for environmental contamination with antibiotic residues and resistance genes, the use of unchecked antibiotics against phytopathogenic bacteria is not advisable. Despite the significant concern regarding AR in the world today, there are inadequate and outdated data on the AR of phytopathogenic bacteria. This review presents recent AR data on plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), along with their environmental impact. In light of these findings, we suggest the use of biocontrol agents as a sustainable, eco-friendly, and effective alternative to controlling phytopathogenic bacteria.

The demand for developing novel antimicrobial drugs has increased due to the rapid appearance and global spread of antibiotic resistance. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) offer distinct advantages over traditional antibiotics, such as broad-range efficacy, a delayed evolution of resistance, and the capacity to enhance human immunity. AMPs are being developed as potential medicines, and current computational and experimental tools aim to facilitate their preclinical and clinical development. Structural and functional constraints as well as a more stringent regulatory framework have impeded clinical translation of AMPs as possible therapeutic agents. Although around four thousand AMPs have been identified so far, there are some limitations of using these AMPs in clinical trials due to their safety in the host and sometimes limitations in the biosynthesis or chemical synthesis of some AMPs. Overcoming these obstacles may help to open a new era of AMPs to combat superbugs without using synthetic antibiotics. This review describes the classification, mechanisms of action and immune modulation, advantages, difficulties, and opportunities of using AMPs against multidrug-resistant pathogens and highlights the need and priorities for creating targeted development strategies that take into account the most cutting-edge tools currently available. It also describes the barriers to using these AMPs in clinical trials.

As a life threatening infectious disease, methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection has been turned into a global health concern recently. In a developing country like Bangladesh, the situation is vulnerable because of inadequate and inappropriate practices of control measures to prevent the spread of nosocomial infection. In this study, 100 clinical, nonclinical, and environmental samples were collected from different hospitals in Bangladesh and examined for the detection of methicillin resistant and multidrug resistant S. aureus by cultural methods. Antibiotic sensitivity pattern of isolates was also evaluated by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Out of the total 100 samples, 66 isolates of S. aureus were determined. Among them, 53 isolates (80.30%) revealed a positive result for oxacillin test, but avoiding any false result, 53 oxacillin positive isolates were again examined by cefoxitin, whereas 43 isolates (65.15%) were resistant to cefoxitin and consequently confirmed as MRSA and rest of the 23 isolates (34.85%) were fixed as methicillin sensitive S. aureus. In antibiotic sensitivity test, S. aureus showed the highest (83%) resistance to gentamycin, oxacillin and cefotaxime than other antibiotics. Finally, the risk practices were assessed which are potential factors for spreading infections. Since, MRSA as well as other antibiotic resistant S. aureus are potent threat to human, therefore, we should consider it as a great concern to minimize or prevent the prevalence and adverse effects of MRSA.

Traditionally regarded as a vestigial organ, the appendix is now being reevaluated for its significant function in health and nutrition of humans. Serving as a “safe house” for beneficial, desired gut bacteria, the appendix is protected by resilient biofilms that create a secure environment. This makes the appendix a”basin” for gut microbiota (GM), replenishing the microbial population following disruptions from infections, antibiotic use, or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Beyond simply hosting bacteria, the appendix has an active role in functions of the immune system. Disruption of the Appendix Microbiome (AM), such as through appendectomy, was found to result in lowered diversity of gut microorganisms and an increased risk of various diseases. The potential therapeutic applications of the AM are a particularly promising area of research. The appendix’s unique microbial environment and its impact on immunity open new avenues for treatments. These include modulating GM to improve cancer treatment outcomes, mitigating IBD, regulating metabolic pathways in obesity and diabetes, influencing neurotransmitter production in neurological disorders, and addressing cardiovascular and autoimmune diseases. This review highlights the appendix’s transformation from a misunderstood organ to a critical component of gut health and immunity. It explores the function of the human appendix as a resilient reservoir for desired microorganisms, and its role in disease progression. Furthermore, it examines the potential therapeutic applications of AM, presenting exciting opportunities for future research and treatment innovations.