Caffeine (CAF) and taurine (TAU) have each demonstrated ergogenic effects across physical and cognitive domains. Often co-formulated in commercial energy drinks, they are widely regarded as the two principal bioactive compounds. However, findings regarding their combined efficacy remain inconclusive. This systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis aimed to quantify the individual and combined effects of CAF and TAU on physical capacity, cognitive function, and physiological responses, with a focus on identifying potential synergistic or antagonistic interactions. Cochrane Library, PubMed, SciELO, SportsDiscus-EBSCO and Web of Science were searched through 25 July 2025. The pooled effect of each outcome was summarized using SMD (Hedge's g) by Bayesian arm-based multilevel network meta-analysis, and SUCRA ranking was applied to estimate the relative treatment effect. Twelve studies were included (8 on physical capacity, 7 on blood lactate (B[la]), and 6 each on cognitive function, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE)). Posterior estimates indicated that CAF+TAU was associated with a credible positive effect on anaerobic capacity (g = 0.46, 95% CrI [0.19, 0.71]) and reaction time (g = 0.75, 95% CrI [0.29, 1.18]) compared to CAF or TAU alone. CAF showed the greatest posterior reduction in RPE (g = -0.64, 95% CrI [-1.20, -0.10]), while its posterior mean estimate suggested a potential increase in B[la] (g = 0.24, 95% CrI [-0.48, 0.96]). In contrast, TAU showed a possible tendency toward reducing B[la] (g = -0.30, 95% CrI [-1.01, 0.42]). No credible differences in HR were observed across conditions. Effects on aerobic performance and physiological measures were variable and appeared to be context-dependent. SUCRA rankings consistently favored CAF+TAU across most outcome domains. CAF+TAU co-supplementation provides a balanced ergogenic effect, combining the central stimulation of CAF with the neuromodulatory and metabolic support of TAU, particularly beneficial for high-intensity, reaction-based tasks. Its effects on endurance and physiological indices vary by condition, highlighting the need for personalized application.

1. Caffeine is among the most widely used psychoactive substances worldwide and has been extensively studied as an ergogenic aid [1,2]. Traditional oral ingestion of caffeine has been shown to impr...

Carbohydrate (CHO) mouth rinsing improves performance by stimulating oral receptors linked to brain regions involved in motor control and motivation, without requiring digestive processing. Most research has focused on fasting states, but the effects of postprandial CHO mouth rinsing remain inconclusive. This study aims to synthesize existing studies on the impact of postprandial CHO mouth rinsing on exercise and cognitive performance, offering insights for future research and practical recommendations for athletes and coaches. Six databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, SciELO and SPORTDiscus) were searched up to March 2025 for randomized, placebo-controlled trials in healthy adults who performed exercise or cognitive tasks under fed conditions following CHO mouth rinsing. A three-level random-effects meta-analysis was performed for exercise performance, while narrative synthesis was applied for cognitive outcomes. For exercise performance, moderator and meta-regression analyses examined sex, training status, exercise modality, rinse composition and concentration, rinse duration, timing of food intake and pre-exercise dietary content. Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria: two assessed cognitive performance and thirty-three evaluated exercise performance. Overall, CHO mouth rinsing improved cognitive function under fed conditions compared with placebo, though certainty was very low. Meta-analysis showed a small but significant ergogenic effect on exercise performance (Hedges' g = 0.18, 95% CI [0.09, 0.28], p < 0.01). Moderator and meta-regression analyses indicated that CHO mouth rinsing was more effective under fed conditions during aerobic exercise, when using maltodextrin solutions, rinsing for ≤10 s, and following a high-CHO meal. This systematic review and three-level meta-analysis provides evidence that CHO mouth rinsing is ergogenic under fed conditions, improving both exercise and cognitive performance, though the overall certainty of evidence is low. Practical applications include its potential use as a simple, noninvasive ergogenic aid, particularly when combined with specific exercise modalities and nutritional strategies.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is biologically plausible as an ergogenic aid through roles in mitochondrial energy production and antioxidant defence, yet findings from randomised trials are inconsistent. This review included twenty-four studies from six databases published up to November 2025, assessing effects of CoQ10 on exercise performance, subjective fatigue and circulating CoQ10 levels in healthy adults. Randomised trials comparing CoQ10 with placebo were synthesised using a three-level model. Risk of bias was assessed with RoB2 and certainty judged with Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. Supplementation consistently increased blood CoQ10, indicating robust biochemical responsiveness. In contrast, performance effects were small and inconsistent. In primary analyses, chronic supplementation showed a small benefit, whereas acute supplementation showed no benefit. After excluding outliers, the chronic effect was no longer stable and the acute effect remained trivial. All subgroup analyses were restricted to chronic supplementation. Within this context, aerobic endurance was significant in primary analyses but became borderline after outlier exclusion, while anaerobic and strength outcomes showed little change. Evidence for reduced subjective fatigue was suggestive and became more consistent after outlier exclusion. Benefits in trained individuals were unstable and became consistent only after outlier exclusion. No stable dose–response pattern emerged for supplementation dosage or duration. Heterogeneity and moderate-to-high risk of bias reduced certainty. Collectively, CoQ10 reliably elevates circulating levels but provides at most modest and context-dependent benefits for exercise performance, largely under chronic use. Overall, certainty is very low to low. Well-controlled randomised trials that standardise formulation, dose and duration and examine sex-specific and endurance-related responses are needed.

Background Carbohydrate (CHO) mouthwash improves performance by stimulating oral receptors linked to brain regions involved in motor control and motivation, without requiring digestive processing. Most research has focused on fasting states, but the effects of postprandial CHO mouthwash remain inconclusive. Objectives This study aims to synthesize existing studies on the impact of postprandial CHO mouthwash on exercise and cognitive performance, offering insights for future research and practical recommendations for athletes and coaches. Methods Six databases (Pubmed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, SciELO and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for articles up to February 2025 and screened using EndNote 21th. Statistical analysis was conducted using metafor package in Rstudio (2024.09.1), and results were visualized with ggplot2 package. Results Thirty-five articles met inclusion criteria, with two studies on cognitive performance included in the systematic review and thirty-three on exercise performance included in both the systematic review and meta-analysis. Overall, CHO mouthwash was found to improve cognitive performance under fed conditions compared to placebo and meta-analysis further supported the enhancement of exercise performance (Hedges' g = 0.18, 95% CI [0.09, 0.28], p < 0.01). Moderator and meta-regression analysis revealed that CHO mouthwash appeared to be more effective in improving exercise performance under fed conditions when aerobic exercise was performed, maltodextrin mouthwash was used, mouthwash duration was ≤ 10 s, and a high-CHO meal was consumed before exercise (p < 0.05). Conclusion This systematic and meta-analytic review supports the view that CHO mouthwash can still improve exercise and cognitive performance under fed conditions.