In recent years, in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis, emphasis has been placed on mitochondrial processes that influence the onset of the disease. Oxidative stress would be one of the consequences of mitochondrial dysfunction, and its impact on brain tissue is well described. Microglia, as a brain macrophage, have an important function in removing unwanted metabolites, as well as iron, which is an amplifier of oxidative stress. There are novelties in terms of the connection between these processes, which have redirected research more towards the process of neurodegeneration itself, so that the emphasis is no longer on neuroinflammation, which would initiate the pathological process itself and still exist in the vicinity of lesions with reduced intensity. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge from the literature regarding oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and iron metabolism and how microglia are involved in these processes in multiple sclerosis.

Background and Objectives: Ultrasound measurement of thyroid volume is not routinely performed in children without suspected thyroid disorders. However, pediatricians must be aware of the normal thyroid volume values in children in order to recognize and treat thyroid disorders in children on time. Therefore, this study aimed to explore factors that influence thyroid volume in children aged 4 to 18 years and to provide descriptive data on thyroid volume across this age range. Materials and Methods: This was a prospective, non-interventional cross-sectional study conducted on a population of children aged 4 to 18 years without confirmed thyroid disorders. We used validated formulas for calculating thyroid volume that integrate the linear dimensions of this organ, such as length, width, and depth, as well as the appropriate correction factor. The Spearman or Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the relationship between total thyroid volume and various continuous variables, while multiple linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the effect of potential predictors on the total thyroid volume. Results: The study included 100 children, predominantly girls (75.0%). Significant positive correlations with thyroid volume were found for age, height, weight, body mass index (BMI), body surface area, serum creatinine, birthweight, and number of comorbidities, while calcitonin was negatively correlated with children’s thyroid volume. We identified age, BMI, and serum creatinine as significant independent positive predictors of thyroid volume in children. Conclusions: Age, BMI, and serum creatinine emerged as significant independent positive predictors of thyroid volume and should be considered when interpreting pediatric thyroid ultrasound measurements.

According to the World Health Organization, malocclusion type III is third, most important oral health problem. It may be the least prevalent malocclusion, but it is the most noticeable and challenging for orthodontic therapy. With this narrative review, we wanted to give a summation of the most current knowledge about diagnostics, different therapy options, limitations, and additional factors that can influence the therapy of class III malocclusion to help clinicians and researchers focus on the specific approaches. Therapy options were divided into the following groups: orthopedic, orthodontic, and surgical. The SNA, SNB, and ANB angles (cephalometric values) are the best ones to examine improvements in different skeletal improvements, while dentoalveolar improvements were also described, emphasizing the limitation of orthopedic therapy to change the skeletal discrepancy. Eruption-guided appliances and chin cups are more effective in early childhood, mixed dentition, during permanent teeth eruption, with no significant skeletal discrepancy. If a discrepancy exists, a face mask is the first therapy choice. The therapy of an underdeveloped maxilla can be solved with different palate expanders. Bulkiness, lack of long-term results, and duration of therapy make fixed orthodontic appliances with braces and elastic traction favorable nowadays. If the skeletal discrepancy is major, a surgical approach should be considered. One of the main limitations in articles is the combination of different therapy approaches, ages, and dentition preferred for device application, duration of therapy, and lack of information about long-term outcomes. On the other hand, the lack of original articles is noticeable, so further research should be done.

Background/Objectives: Vertebral artery hypoplasia is a common congenital anatomical variant of the vertebral arteries, traditionally considered a benign finding. However, accumulating evidence suggests that VAH may influence vertebrobasilar hemodynamics and contribute to susceptibility to posterior circulation disorders. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current evidence regarding the epidemiology, hemodynamic significance, neurological manifestations, and cerebrovascular outcomes associated with VAH. Methods: This systematic review was conducted according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines and registered in PROSPERO (CRD420261442242). A systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE was performed from database inception to 8 June 2026, supplemented by manual reference screening and targeted searches. Studies evaluating VAH diagnosed using vascular imaging or anatomical assessment, including CTA, MRA, Doppler ultrasonography, and DSA, were eligible. Methodological quality was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tools, and the level of evidence was classified according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine framework. Results: Forty-six studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. VAH prevalence varied substantially according to imaging modality, diagnostic criteria, and study population, ranging from approximately 3% to nearly 50%. Across clinical cohorts, VAH was frequently associated with posterior circulation ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attack, and vertebrobasilar insufficiency. Hemodynamic studies demonstrated reduced vertebral artery flow, increased vascular resistance, impaired cerebrovascular reactivity, and altered collateral flow redistribution. VAH was also associated with vestibular disorders, non-stroke neurological syndromes, vertebral artery dissection, and other cerebrovascular anatomical variations. Unlike previous reviews focusing primarily on prevalence or stroke associations, this review integrates epidemiological, anatomical, hemodynamic, computational, and neurological evidence within a unified clinically oriented framework and proposes an evidence-informed conceptual model of VAH as a context-dependent low-flow vascular susceptibility phenotype. Conclusions: Current evidence indicates that VAH represents a clinically relevant vascular susceptibility phenotype rather than merely an incidental anatomical variant. Its clinical significance appears to depend on the interaction between reduced vertebral artery flows, collateral capacity, vascular remodeling, and acquired cerebrovascular risk factors. Standardized diagnostic criteria and prospective multimodal studies are required to define its role in future cerebrovascular risk assessment.

Background and Objectives: Professional voice users (PVUs) are individuals for whom the voice is the primary tool of work, and whose professional success and income largely depend on its quality. This paper’s study population predominantly consisted of occupational voice users with moderate vocal demands and the study aimed to identify risk factors and causes of voice quality and production disorders, as well as the socio-epidemiological characteristics of affected patients. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted in Serbia, including 145 occupational voice users aged 20–70 years who were treated for dysphonia between August 2019 and July 2024. Data collected included demographics, symptom duration, tobacco exposure, throat and nasal swab results, gastroenterological and endocrinological evaluations and information on treatment for allergic rhinitis, asthma, and dysphonia. Patients were stratified by age, profession, and cause of dysphonia into the appropriate groups. Results: Dysphonia is significantly more common among female occupational users. There is a significant association between the cause of dysphonia and both age and hyperthyroidism. Smoking was highly prevalent in the study population and showed associations with selected videolaryngostroboscopic parameters; however, causal inferences could not be made due to the lack of a non-smoking comparison group. No statistically significant association was observed between positive nasal or throat swabs and dysphonia, nor between allergic rhinitis or asthma and the onset of dysphonia in occupational voice users. Treatment modality varies by gender, with male occupational voice users more likely to undergo surgery and female occupational voice users more often receiving conservative therapy. Symmetric vocal fold vibrations were observed in 85.5% of participants, while regular vibrations were present in 53.1%, and insufficient glottal closure in 10.3%. Regular vocal fold vibration was significantly less frequent in patients with structural disorders and more common in individuals aged 30–39 years. Male sex showed a borderline association with reduced likelihood of symmetric vocal fold vibrations. No independent predictors of insufficient glottal closure were identified. Conclusions: These results support the implementation of systematic otolaryngologic examinations, combined with mandatory education on proper voice use, vocal hygiene, and the harmful effects of tobacco smoke, as measures to prevent voice disorders in occupational voice users.

Background and Objectives: Hypertension in young adulthood is increasingly recognized as a precursor to future cardiovascular disease. Early identification of modifiable risk factors, such as dietary habits, lifestyle behaviors, and psychological indicators, is critical for prevention. This study aimed to examine the elevated clinic blood pressure and associated factors in 19-year-old individuals in Serbia. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the 2019 Fourth National Health Survey. A total of 212 participants underwent blood pressure measurement, anthropometric assessment, and completed standardized questionnaires on diet, physical activity, depressive symptoms, and sociodemographic characteristics. Blood pressure was classified according to ESC/ESH guidelines. Associations with elevated blood pressure were assessed using chi-square tests and multivariate logistic regression. Results: Most participants had optimal or normal blood pressure, while 18.9% had elevated blood pressure, including high-normal and Grade I–II hypertension. Elevated blood pressure was more prevalent among males and was associated with depressive symptoms. Nutrition status was significantly associated with elevated blood pressure, and some dietary habits like consumption of pure fruit or vegetable juices and the intake of processed meat products. Other socioeconomic factors, eating habits and physical activity were not significantly correlated. In multivariate logistic regression, elevated arterial blood pressure was significantly associated with consuming pure fruit or vegetable juices less than once per week (OR = 3.239; 95% CI: 1.413–7.427) and with consuming processed meat products several times per week in comparison to the daily consumption (OR = 0.325; 95% CI: 0.130–0.812), while no other variables remained statistically significant. Conclusions: Clinically elevated arterial blood pressure is present in a substantial proportion of 19-year-olds. Early lifestyle interventions targeting nutrition and psychological health may prevent progression to hypertension and reduce long-term cardiovascular risk.