Background/Objectives: The aim of the study was to prospectively assess the impact of certain parameters of pituitary morphology assessed with the use of magnetic resonance imaging on the occurrence of hormonal disorders in patients with primary partial empty sella (PES) or primary empty sella (ES). Methods: Forty-three patients were divided into two groups: group 1—patients with PES (n = 20); group 2—patients with ES (n = 23). Results: Patients with ES were characterized by larger both the transverse (14.8 ± 2.9 mm vs. 17.2 ± 2.9 mm, p = 0.016) and anteroposterior (AP) diameters of the pituitary (11.4 ± 1.4 mm vs. 13.2 ± 1.9 mm, p = 0.003), a smaller craniocaudal (CC) diameter (3.9 ± 0.62 mm vs. 2.2 ± 0.6 mm, p = 0.001), and a lower pituitary volume (332.8 ± 107.6 mm³ vs. 243.5 ± 70.9 mm³, p = 0.001). Moreover, an AP infundibular displacement was more common in patients with ES (7 [35%] vs. 16 [69.6%]., p = 0.023). Despite the fact that secondary adrenocortical insufficiency was shown to be significantly more common and ACTH levels to be significantly lower (27.5 ± 13.2 pg/mL vs. 21.8 ± 17.6 pg/mL, p = 0.039) in patients with ES (0 [0%] vs. 3 [13.4%], p = 0.046), univariate logistic regression did not reveal any significant associations of pituitary diameters, pituitary volume, or pituitary stalk displacement with endocrine disorders, such as secondary adrenocortical insufficiency or hyperprolactinemia, which was confirmed with multivariate logistic regression adjusted for age, sex, BMI, and arterial hypertension. Conclusions: Radiologically assessed CC, AP, and transverse pituitary diameters, pituitary volume, or pituitary stalk displacement in patients with PES or ES have no bearing on the rates of hormonal disorders. Nonetheless, certain hormonal disorders may be more common in patients with ES, which suggests a need for hormone-level assessments in this population.

Background: Insulin resistance (IR) is a condition that precedes the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), which is regarded as an established risk factor for atherosclerosis (AS). Considering that the same metabolic changes as those caused by IR are evidenced to promote the development of AS, we investigated whether IR estimated by the homeostasis model assessment of IR (HOMA-IR) could predict the occurrence of preclinical AS. Methods: The study participants were divided into two groups based on the presence of IR diagnosed during the baseline hospitalization and defined as a HOMA-IR value equal to or higher than 2.5. After a follow-up period of at least four years, a total of 79 (n = 79) were prospectively assessed in terms of the presence of preclinical AS, determined by either an abnormally low ankle–brachial index (ABI) (ABI < 0.9) or an increased carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) (CIMT > 1 mm). Results: Using the multivariate logistic regression analysis, it was demonstrated that the HOMA-IR was associated with an abnormally low ABI (odds ratio: 1.609, 95% confidence interval (CI): [1.041–2.487], p = 0.032). The Cox regression model revealed that the HOMA-IR was a predictor of both an abnormal ABI (hazard ratio: 1.435, CI: [1.076–1.913], p = 0.014) and increased CIMT (hazard ratio: 1.419, CI: [1.033–1.948], p = 0.031), independently of age, sex, dyslipidemia, smoking, triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and total cholesterol levels. Conclusions: IR, as estimated by the HOMA-IR, may be considered as a predictor of preclinical AS, independently of cardiovascular risk factors.

Purpose: Glucose metabolism disorders are an established risk factor for atherosclerosis. Although reactive hypoglycemia (RH) can be classified as one of these disorders, its role as a potential atherosclerosis risk factor remains unclear. The aim of the study was to assess whether patients with RH have a higher risk of atherosclerosis. Patients and Methods: We recruited 178 patients (N=178) with suspected RH who were hospitalized after 2014 and underwent a prolonged 5-hour oral glucose tolerance test. The study cohort was divided into 2 groups depending on the results of the oral glucose tolerance test: Group 1 – subjects without RH (n=44), Group 2 –subjects with RH (n=134). Results: The analyzed groups differed significantly in terms of the following risk factors for atherosclerosis: high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels (54.3± 18.8 mg/dL vs 63± 18.5 mg/dL, p=0.003) and atherogenic indices (Castelli I: 3.7± 1.2 vs 3.1± 1.3, p=0.004; Castelli II: 2.1± 0.9 vs 1.7± 0.9, p=0.007; the atherogenic index of plasma: 0.34± 0.33 vs 0.18± 0.3, p=0.006; and the atherogenic coefficient: 2.7± 1.2 vs 2.1± 1.3, p=0.004). Univariate logistic regression showed that RH should not be considered to be a predictor of an increased atherogenic index of plasma (odds ratio [OR]=0.3 [95% confidence interval [CI] [0.16– 0.7], p=0.002). Multivariate logistic regression revealed triglyceride levels (OR 1.14 [1.07– 1.2], p=0.001) and body weight (OR 1.07 [1.03– 1.12], p=0.002) to be independent risk factors for atherosclerosis. Conclusion: Atherosclerosis risk factors are no more prevalent in patients with RH. RH does not increase the risk of an abnormal atherogenic index of plasma.

Background Benign HPV-related warts of the head and neck are common lesions in children, adolescents, and young adults. Despite their non-malignant nature, their visibility, persistence, and recurrence result in a significant cosmetic and psychosocial burden. Management in this anatomically sensitive region requires balancing clinical effectiveness with preservation of cosmetic outcomes. Available evidence is heterogeneous and frequently not specific to the head and neck, as many studies combine different anatomical sites and lesion types. Aims To critically evaluate current treatment options for benign HPV-induced warts of the head and neck, with emphasis on the balance between clinical effectiveness and cosmetic safety, and to compare minimally invasive and destructive approaches in terms of recurrence, safety, and cosmetic outcomes. Methods A narrative review with a structured literature search was conducted using PubMed, PubMed Central, and Google Scholar. ResearchGate was used as an additional source. The search covered publications from 2015 to November 2026 and was limited to English-language studies. Eligible publications included meta-analyses, systematic reviews, randomized controlled trials, observational studies, and clinical guidelines. Study selection and data extraction were performed by two reviewers. A total of 42 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results No single treatment modality was identified as universally superior. Destructive methods demonstrate high clearance rates but are associated with a higher risk of pain, scarring, pigmentary changes, and recurrence, which limits their use in cosmetically sensitive areas. Minimally invasive approaches, particularly laser-based therapies, show high effectiveness, with reported clearance rates of approximately 70 to 90 percent, and more favorable cosmetic outcomes. Intralesional immunotherapy demonstrates variable effectiveness, ranging from 23 to 95 percent, reflecting differences in agents, treatment protocols, and study populations, and may enable clearance of both treated and distant lesions with minimal risk of scarring. Topical and systemic therapies show moderate effectiveness but require prolonged treatment and high patient adherence. Evidence on HPV vaccination suggests a possible therapeutic effect, although current data remain limited and heterogeneous. Conclusions Management of benign HPV warts of the head and neck requires an individualized approach. In relation to the research questions, minimally invasive methods and immunotherapy, in selected clinical contexts, may provide a more favorable balance between effectiveness and cosmetic safety compared to destructive approaches, while destructive methods remain appropriate in selected cases. The lack of head-and-neck-specific data, heterogeneity of study designs, and limited long-term follow-up restrict the strength of conclusions and do not allow the development of standardized treatment algorithms. Further high-quality studies with standardized outcomes are required.

Background and Aim: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) affects 5–16% of women of reproductive age and is associated with significant reproductive, metabolic, and psychological consequences. Lifestyle modification, including diet and physical activity, is universally recommended as first-line therapy. However, most clinical studies and guidelines treat PCOS as a homogeneous condition, overlooking the heterogeneity defined by the Rotterdam phenotypes. This reduces the applicability of current recommendations. The novelty of this review lies in focusing on phenotype-specific responses to lifestyle interventions. The aim is to summarize available evidence on dietary approaches, physical activity, supplementation, and behavioral factors across PCOS phenotypes and to identify gaps for future research. Methods: A narrative review was performed using PubMed, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate. Eligible publications included randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and international guidelines published after 2018. Search terms combined PCOS, phenotype, diet, physical activity, insulin resistance, hyperandrogenism, supplementation, smoking, and sleep. Results: Evidence indicates that aerobic exercise, high-intensity interval training, low-AGE and high-fiber hypocaloric diets, and selected supplements such as β-hydroxybutyrate and N-acetylcysteine improve metabolic and hormonal outcomes. These effects are most pronounced in classical phenotypes A and B, characterized by hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance. Non-hyperandrogenic phenotypes, such as D, show limited response to interventions targeting androgen excess. Behavioral factors, including smoking and sleep disturbances, aggravate metabolic dysfunctions and worsen outcomes in hyperandrogenic phenotypes. Conclusions: Lifestyle modification remains central to PCOS management, but its effectiveness is not uniform across phenotypes. Tailoring dietary, exercise, and adjunctive strategies to the endocrine and metabolic characteristics of each phenotype may improve outcomes. Future research should prioritize phenotype-stratified trials to provide evidence-based recommendations that reflect the heterogeneity of PCOS.

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains the leading cause of cancer-related mortality, but advances in targeted therapies and immunotherapy have radically changed the prognosis of advanced disease. The introduction of tyrosine kinase inhibitors directed against alterations in EGFR, ALK, ROS1, BRAF, MET, RET, KRAS G12C, NTRK, HER2 and other genes has led to a shift away from uniform chemotherapy toward treatment based on precise molecular characterization of the tumor. In parallel, immune checkpoint–blocking antibodies, primarily targeting PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4, have become the standard of care in first and subsequent lines of treatment for patients without oncogenic drivers, used both as monotherapy and in combination with chemotherapy and anti-angiogenic agents. Despite substantial survival gains, most patients develop primary or acquired resistance to targeted therapy and immunotherapy, which represents a major clinical challenge. This article reviews current standards of care in advanced NSCLC, emphasizing the role of molecular testing and PD-L1 assessment in therapy selection, the place of combination regimens including immune checkpoint inhibitors, and emerging strategies to overcome resistance, such as next-generation inhibitors, bispecific antibodies, antibody–drug conjugates, neoantigen vaccines and cellular therapies. Particular attention is given to future perspectives for further personalization of treatment, the role of predictive biomarkers (including PD-L1, TMB and ctDNA), and ongoing and planned studies of combination approaches that may further improve outcomes for patients with advanced NSCLC.