Considering the growing need for extensive energy storage solutions in smart grid technologies and affordable options for entry-level electric vehicles, sodium-ion batteries offer a promising alternative. They use raw materials that are cheaper, less toxic, and more abundant than those used in lithium-ion batteries, making them especially suitable for large-scale applications. This study comprehensively investigated four commercially available sodium-ion batteries to examine their structural and electrochemical characteristics. The cells were dissected, and the electrode dimensions, the areal mass loadings, and the material compositions were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, and attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Electrical characterization, including electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, C-rate testing up to 6 C under different ambient temperatures, along with cyclic aging studies, provided insights into the cells’ performance and degradation mechanisms. The findings highlighted variations in electrode coatings, particle sizes, and cathode materials among the cells, which were then correlated with their electrical behavior. This emphasized the challenges in maintaining sodium-ion battery performance, especially at low temperatures. This study was designed to establish a comprehensive knowledge base for both academic and industrial research in sodium-ion battery technology.

Lithium-ion batteries are pivotal components in battery electric vehicles, significantly influencing vehicle design and performance. This study investigates the interactions between cell properties and battery pack characteristics through statistical correlation analysis of datasets derived from industry-leading benchmarking platforms. Findings indicate that energy densities are comparable across cell formats at the pack level. While NMC and NCA chemistries outperform LFP in energy density at both cell and pack levels, LFP’s favorable cell-to-pack factors mitigate these differences. Analysis of cell properties suggests that increases in cell-level volumetric and gravimetric energy density result in proportionally smaller gains at the pack level due to the growing proportion of required passive components. The impact of cell chemistry and format on the z-dimension of a battery pack is analyzed in order to identify dependencies and influences between nominal cell properties and the geometry of the battery pack. The analysis suggests no significant influence of the used cell chemistry on the vertical dimension of a battery pack. The consideration of cell formats shows a dependency between the battery pack z-dimension and cell geometry, with prismatic cells reaching the highest pack heights and cylindrical cells being observed in packs of smaller vertical dimensions. The study also investigates the emerging sodium-ion battery technology and assesses pack-level energy densities derived from cell-level properties. The insights of this study contribute to the understanding of cell-to-pack relationships, guiding R&D toward improved energy storage solutions for electric vehicles.

As battery electric vehicles (BEVs) gain significance in the automotive industry, manufacturers must diversify their vehicle portfolios with a wide range of electric vehicle models. Electric powertrains must be designed to meet the unique requirements and boundary conditions of different vehicle concepts to provide satisfying solutions for their customers. During the early development phases, it is crucial to establish an initial powertrain component design that allows the respective divisions to develop their components independently and minimize interdependencies, avoiding time- and cost-intensive iterations. This study presents a holistic electric powertrain component design model, including the high-voltage battery, power electronics, electric machine, and transmission, which is meant to be used as a foundation for further development. This model’s simulation results and performance characteristics are validated against a reference vehicle, which was torn down and tested on a vehicle dynamometer. This tool is applicable for an optimization approach, focusing on achieving optimal energy consumption, which is crucial for the design of battery electric vehicles.

Achieving global climate-neutrality goals requires a consistent transformation of vehicle fleets toward electric vehicles. Due to the increasing diversification of battery technologies, automotive manufacturers face the complex task of identifying the most suitable cell technology for specific vehicle applications. This study presents a method for segment-specific cell selection for innovative cell technologies during the early phase of vehicle development. The study covers a wide range of battery cell chemistries, including established lithium-ion batteries, emerging sodium-ion batteries, and future battery technologies such as solid-state batteries (SSB) and lithium-sulfur batteries (Li-S). These are selected for different electric vehicle applications, ranging from small to large passenger battery electric vehicles (BEVs) to battery electric trucks. The results show that cell technology selection depends highly on the vehicle segment and its specific requirements. In the large BEV segment, only lithium-ion batteries and SSB are technically feasible due to packaging restrictions, with SSB offering the highest ranges but also the highest costs. In the mid-size BEV segment, cost-efficient sodium-ion technologies compete with established LFP battery technology, with LFP offering advantages in terms of achievable range. In the small BEV segment, Li-S technology has big potential, enabling high maximum ranges at comparatively low cost. For battery electric trucks, sodium-ion and Li-S batteries are unsuitable for long-haul applications due to insufficient range, but represent an economically attractive alternative for short-haul applications. The present study provides a well-founded scientific basis for multicriteria cell selection in vehicle development and evaluates the potential of innovative battery technologies for electric vehicles.

Transitioning to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is crucial for decarbonizing transportation. However, the market penetration of BEVs depends significantly on cost structures and innovative technologies. This review comprehensively analyzes the key cost and performance parameters along the vertical integration axis of BEV electrification, from the cell to energy system integration. At the cell level, the analysis shows the emergence of sodium-ion technology as a lowcost alternative. In contrast, at the pack level, advanced integration concepts increase the competitiveness of cell chemistries with lower energy density. At the vehicle level, future cost reductions increasingly depend on battery innovations. Finally, synergies with renewable energy systems through bidirectional charging are essential to unlock BEVs' full economic and environmental potential. The future success of electric mobility thus depends on the proper selection of cell technology and holistic system integration.