Ophidiomycosis, caused by the keratinophilic fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo), is an emerging threat to snake populations, yet its epidemiology in Europe remains underexplored. We investigated the distribution of Oo across free-ranging snake populations in Italy, integrating both recent field samples and historical museum specimens. Our survey involved 423 snakes representing 17 species from 17 regions, with Oo detected in 32 snakes from five different species. Additional molecular detection for Parananniziopsis spp. on a subset of 13 Oo-negative samples from snakes that exhibited clinical signs yielded negative results. Acknowledging the non-standardised sampling and the limited sample size, our findings highlight Oo’s persistent and widespread presence across diverse ecological zones, particularly affecting semi-aquatic species like Natrix tessellata. While Oo Clade I was primarily found in museum specimens, indicating a historical presence, Clade II prevailed in recent samples. This highlights a complex epidemiological landscape where different clades may influence the current disease dynamics. Our results underscore the importance of continuous surveillance and highlight the need for standardised sampling to better understand snake fungal disease ecology and epidemiology in Italy.

The Sardinian grass snake, Natrix helvetica cetti, is an island-endemic subspecies with a restricted and highly fragmented distribution confined to Sardinia, Italy. Information on its reproductive biology and wild offspring remain scarce in the scientific literature. This present study reports the first recorded data on a clutch of eggs laid by a wild melanistic female N. h. cetti that exhibited lethargy when observed basking, prompting a brief period of health monitoring and screening for the presence of the pathogenic fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo). The clutch yielded nine hatchlings, for which phenotypic data are provided and compared with existing information on the Natrix natrix complex. Both the adult female and its offspring tested negative in the Oo screening. The body size of the adult grass snake, specifically its snout-to-vent length of 48.3 cm, is the smallest ever recorded for a gravid female N. helvetica. This may indicate that maturity is reached at particularly small sizes, a distinctive trait of this intriguing island subspecies, suggesting the need for further investigation.

Fungal pathogens pose a growing threat to vertebrate biodiversity. In snakes, Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) has garnered particular concern, although its impact in Europe remains poorly understood. We conducted a season‐long, standardized survey of dice snakes ( Natrix tessellata ) along the northern shore of Lake Como (Italy) to quantify Oo and ophidiomycosis prevalence, identify the circulating strain, and explore the association with environmental, morphological and behavioral traits. Between March and October 2024, we collected 96 N. tessellata samples (23 sheds and swabs from 73 live individuals; scale clips were also collected from 60 out of the 73 live individuals). These samples were analyzed through qPCR, histopathology, and direct field observations. After excluding four recaptures, the dataset comprised 92 N. tessellata samples (23 sheds and swabs from 69 individuals), of which 49 tested positive for Oo (53.3%). Among live individuals, 26 tested positive (37.7%). Of these, 21 showed clinical signs (i.e., skin lesions; 80.8%), and histology confirmed ophidiomycosis in 10 of 20 tested Oo‐positive samples (47.6%). Among the five Oo‐positive snakes without skin lesions, only one showed histological evidence of ophidiomycosis. This resulted in “at least apparent” ophidiomycosis (i.e., pooling the case‐classification categories “Apparent ophidiomycosis”, “Ophidiomycosis” and “Ophidiomycosis and Oo shedder”) being confirmed in 22 out of 69 live snakes (31.9%), corresponding to an overall disease prevalence of 23.9% (22 out of 92) across the full sample set. All sequenced samples belonged to clade II. Bayesian models revealed that skin lesions predicted both Oo detection and ophidiomycosis, while snout‐vent length was inversely related to both pathogen presence and disease, suggesting age‐linked susceptibility. Both Oo‐positive and diseased snakes had lower body temperatures but showed no clear preference for warmer substrates, suggesting limited or absent behavioral fever. Body‐condition index (BCI) did not differ between Oo/disease‐positive and Oo/disease‐negative snakes, suggesting possible host tolerance. An assessment of antipredator behavior revealed a marked reduction in musking among Oo‐positive snakes, potentially compromising antipredator defenses. Our findings identify N. tessellata as a possible model for European ophidiomycosis research and highlight the need for multi‐season capture–recapture studies.

Melanism is one of the most common forms of colour polymorphism in vertebrates. In reptiles, its maintenance is often explained by the thermal melanism hypothesis, whereby thermal benefits in cold or thermally challenging environments outweigh associated costs, leading to increased fitness. Here, we assemble the first country-wide map of melanistic occurrences for the two adder subspecies present in Italy, namely Vipera berus marasso and V. b. walser. We then use fine-scale ecological niche modelling to estimate the current extent of suitable habitat for melanistic individuals and to identify climatic correlates of their occurrence. Mean annual temperature and mean diurnal temperature range emerged as the variables most strongly (and negatively) associated with melanism, providing support for the thermal melanism hypothesis in this species. Projections to 2050 and 2070 under SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 indicate substantial contractions of suitable habitat, with average losses ranging from 20% to 45% by 2070 depending on the model. Such reductions are likely to curb the frequency of the melanistic phenotype and may erode genetic diversity, underscoring the need for targeted monitoring and conservation planning.

Left dorsal displacement of the large colon (LDDLC) is a common cause of colic in horses and it is frequently associated with recurrent episodes, with significant implications for horse management, athletic performance, and owner satisfaction. Laparoscopic nephrosplenic space (NSS) ablation is a preventive surgical technique aimed at reducing recurrence in horses with a history of medically or surgically treated LDDLC. This retrospective study evaluated 48 horses that underwent laparoscopic NSS ablation in two Italian Veterinary Teaching Hospitals between 2016 and 2024. Short-term outcomes, including immediate postoperative complications and discharge status, were assessed. Long-term follow-up data were collected via owner questionnaires, focusing on survival, recurrence of colic, post-surgical complications, return to athletic or breeding activity, and owner satisfaction. Most horses were discharged without complications (91.7%), while postoperative colic occurred in 8.3%. Kaplan–Meier estimated one-year post-discharge survival was 83.3%, and 81.3% of horses were alive at last follow-up (range 0.7 months to 8.8 years). Post-discharge complications were reported in 31.2% of horses, most commonly recurrent LDDLC. Return to preoperative athletic or breeding activity was reported in 70.8% of cases, and owner satisfaction was high (83.3%). Time-to-event analysis indicated markedly reduced survival in horses requiring laparotomy during follow-up. Bayesian logistic models suggested lower mortality and fewer post-discharge complications in horses with prior colic surgery, whereas a history of recurrent colic and laparotomy during follow-up was associated with higher mortality and complications. These results indicate that laparoscopic NSS ablation is an effective and safe procedure for long-term management of horses at risk of LDDLC, allowing a high rate of survival, functional recovery, and owner satisfaction, despite the persistence of occasional colic episodes.