Background: Low back pain (LBP) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, often driven by distinct pain mechanisms: nociceptive, neuropathic, and central sensitization. Accurate classification of these mechanisms is critical for guiding effective, targeted treatments. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and reported according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A comprehensive literature search was performed in MEDLINE, Cochrane CENTRAL, Scopus, PEDro, and Web of Science. Eligible studies included adults with LBP and focused on clinical criteria for classifying pain mechanisms. Data on study methods, population characteristics, and outcomes were extracted and synthesized. Results: Nine studies met the inclusion criteria. Nociceptive pain was characterized by localized symptoms proportional to mechanical triggers, with no neurological signs. Neuropathic pain was associated with burning sensations, dysaesthesia, and a positive neurodynamic straight leg raise (SLR) test. Central sensitization featured widespread pain, hyperalgesia, and disproportionate symptoms. Tools such as painDETECT, DN4, and the Central Sensitisation Inventory (CSI) were validated for neuropathic and central sensitization pain. Central sensitization and neuropathic pain were linked to greater disability and psychological distress compared to nociceptive pain. Conclusions: This review aims to provide a historical perspective on pain mechanism classifications and to explore how previous frameworks have influenced current diagnostic concepts in physiotherapy practice. By synthesizing key clinical criteria used to differentiate between nociceptive, neuropathic, and central sensitization pain, this review proposes a practical framework to improve the accuracy of pain classification in clinical settings.

Background: Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) is a chronic condition characterized by severe pain and functional impairment. Graded Motor Imagery (GMI) and Mirror Therapy (MT) have emerged as potential non-invasive treatments; this review evaluates the effectiveness of these therapies in reducing pain, improving function, and managing swelling in CRPS patients. Methods: A systematic review was conducted including randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that investigated GMI and MT in CRPS patients. This review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42024535972) to ensure transparency and adherence to protocols. This review included searches of PubMed, Cochrane, SCOPUS, and Web of Science databases. Out of 81 studies initially screened, 6 were included in the final review. Studies were assessed for quality using the PEDro and RoB-2 scales. The primary outcomes were pain reduction, functional improvement, and swelling reduction. Results: Graded Motor Imagery (GMI) and Mirror Therapy (MT) reduced pain by an average of 20 points on the Neuropathic Pain Scale (NPS) and resulted in functional improvements as measured by the Task-Specific Numeric Rating Scale (NRS). GMI also contributed to some reduction in swelling. MT, particularly in post-stroke CRPS patients, showed significant pain reduction and functional improvements, with additional benefits in reducing swelling in certain studies. However, the included studies had small sample sizes and mixed designs, which limit the generalizability of the findings. The studies varied in sample size and design, with some risk of bias noted. Conclusions: Graded Motor Imagery (GMI) and Mirror Therapy (MT) have proven to be effective interventions for managing Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS), with significant improvements in pain reduction and functional recovery. These non-invasive treatments hold potential for integration into standard rehabilitation protocols. However, the small sample sizes and variability in study designs limit the generalizability of these findings. Future research should focus on larger, more homogeneous trials to validate the long-term effectiveness of GMI and MT, ensuring more robust clinical application.

Background: Chronic knee pain in older adults is a prevalent condition that significantly impacts quality of life. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) has emerged as a potential non-invasive treatment option. This scoping review aims to evaluate the efficacy of tDCS in treating chronic knee pain among older adults. Methods: A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted, focusing on randomized controlled trials and pilot studies. Studies were included if they met specific Population, Concept, and Context (PCC) criteria. The primary outcomes assessed were pain reduction and functional improvement. Results: Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 779 participants. However, the results varied across studies, with some showing minimal differences between active tDCS and sham treatments. Advanced neuroimaging techniques, such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), provided insights into the neuromodulatory effects of tDCS, revealing changes in brain activity related to pain perception. Conclusions: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) presents a promising avenue for treating chronic knee pain in elderly individuals. However, the current body of research offers mixed results, emphasizing the need for more extensive and standardized studies. Future research should focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, optimizing treatment protocols, and exploring the long-term effects and safety of tDCS.

Background: Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor impairments, including balance deficits, gait disturbances, and postural instability. Given the limitations of pharmacological treatments, alternative rehabilitative strategies such as Argentine Tango (AT) have been explored for their potential benefits in improving mobility and quality of life in individuals with PD. This systematic review evaluates the effectiveness of AT in enhancing balance, gait, and functional mobility in PD patients. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Scopus, PEDro, and Web of Science. Studies were included if they were randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the impact of AT on motor outcomes in PD. Data extraction and risk of bias assessment were performed independently by two reviewers using the Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool. Results: Five randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included, with sample sizes ranging from 10 to 62 participants and intervention durations varying from 10 weeks to 24 months. AT significantly improved balance (Mini-BESTest, BBS, FRT), gait performance (6MWT, TUG), and mobility compared to usual care or conventional exercise. Some studies also reported psychological benefits, including reduced depressive symptoms and increased balance confidence. However, freezing of gait outcomes were inconclusive, and methodological limitations, such as small sample sizes and inconsistent intervention durations, were noted. Outcomes for freezing of gait (FoG) remained inconclusive due to the variability in assessment methods and inconsistent reporting across studies. Conclusions: AT appears to be an effective rehabilitation strategy for improving balance, gait, and functional mobility in PD. While preliminary evidence suggests additional psychological benefits, larger, high-quality trials are needed to confirm its long-term efficacy and establish standardized intervention protocols. AT may be integrated into multimodal rehabilitation programs to enhance motor and psychosocial outcomes in PD management. However, the small sample sizes of included studies and the heterogeneity in intervention durations limit the generalizability of findings. AT may serve as a structured rehabilitative approach for improving mobility and psychosocial outcomes in PD and could be integrated into community-based or clinical rehabilitation programs.

Background: Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome (FAIS) is a musculoskeletal disorder characterized by hip pain, reduced range of motion (ROM), and functional impairment, particularly in young and physically active individuals. While surgery is generally not performed in individuals under 18 due to skeletal immaturity, it remains a standard treatment option for adults presenting with persistent symptoms and functional limitations. However, the overall effectiveness of physiotherapy-based interventions remains unclear. This review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of conservative rehabilitation strategies for FAIS, assessing their impact on pain management, functional improvement, and quality-of-life outcomes, rather than directly comparing them to surgical interventions. Methods: This scoping review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL, Scopus, PEDro, and Web of Science. Studies were included if they examined conservative rehabilitation for FAIS, assessing outcomes such as pain reduction, functional improvement, range of motion (ROM), muscle strength, and quality of life. Data were extracted and synthesized narratively. Results: Both conservative rehabilitation and surgical intervention resulted in significant improvements in pain, function, and quality of life. Exercise-based physiotherapy, particularly programs incorporating core stability, progressive strengthening, and neuromuscular training, demonstrated positive outcomes. Surgery provided faster pain relief, ROM improvements, and earlier functional gains, particularly in activities requiring hip flexion. Given the variability in outcome measures, including pain, function, and quality of life, the interpretation of results must consider differences in treatment protocols across studies. Conclusions: Conservative rehabilitation should be considered a first-line treatment for Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome (FAIS), as it provides significant improvements in pain relief, function, and quality of life while mitigating the risks associated with surgery. Exercise-based physiotherapy, particularly programs incorporating core stabilization, progressive strengthening, and neuromuscular training, has demonstrated positive clinical outcomes. Although surgery may offer faster symptom relief and greater short-term functional gains, long-term differences between surgical and conservative management appear minimal in selected patient populations. Structured physiotherapy interventions should be prioritized before surgical consideration, except in cases where symptoms persist despite adequate rehabilitation. Future research should aim to establish standardized rehabilitation protocols, define optimal intervention parameters, and identify patient subgroups most likely to benefit from conservative management. Additionally, longitudinal studies with larger sample sizes are needed to clarify the long-term effects of non-surgical treatments on joint health and functional outcomes.

Background: Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) injuries are relatively rare, with limited consensus on the optimal treatment for isolated acute cases. Conservative management and surgical reconstruction each offer potential benefits, but their comparative efficacy remains unclear. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A systematic search of MEDLINE, Cochrane CENTRAL, Scopus, PEDro, and Web of Science was completed on 23 December 2024. Studies comparing conservative treatment and surgical reconstruction for isolated acute PCL injuries were included. Outcomes such as functional recovery, stability, and long-term complications were extracted and synthesized qualitatively. Results: Six studies were included, comprising case series, prospective, retrospective, and review designs. Conservative treatment demonstrated significant improvements in functional recovery (IKDC scores: 67–90.3/100) but showed limited improvement in stability (STSD reduction: 0–3 mm). Surgical reconstruction yielded superior stability (STSD reduction: 8.2 to 2.7 mm) and lower rates of degenerative changes but was associated with a higher risk of complications. Functional outcomes were comparable between approaches in some studies, although surgical patients showed slightly better long-term stability. Conclusions: Both conservative and surgical treatments achieve satisfactory outcomes for isolated acute PCL injuries. Treatment selection should be tailored to patient-specific factors, considering functional demands and injury severity.