In this study, we tested the outcomes of access to a response to intervention (RtI) model in kindergarten or in first grade on end-of-Grade-2 reading achievement and placement in special education. Across five schools, 214 students who began having access to Tier 2 intervention in kindergarten or first grade were compared in Grades 1 and 2 with 208 cohort peers who were average readers and 102 historical control condition second grade poor readers who did not receive Tier 2 intervention. Results demonstrated significant effects on reading achievement for access to RtI in kindergarten at the end of first grade (effects averaged 0.48), but not in second grade, except for students who were English language learners (ELLs), who showed an advantage through the end of second grade. Students with access to RtI overall had significantly higher outcomes at the end of Grade 2 than students in the historical control, with no differences resulting from ELL status. No significant difference in the proportion of students placed in special education was noted; however, a greater proportion of the students found eligible as with learning disabilities had poor reading scores if they were placed after participating in RtI.

This exploratory investigation examined the transformation of a traditional summer reading intervention (SRI) to synchronous virtual format in response to school closures due to COVID-19. Goals were to adapt and describe the adaptation of the in-person intervention to the virtual environment, examine program outcomes, and understand tutor and caregiver perspectives of virtual SRI. SRI involved tutor training, coaching, implementation of evidence-based practices, and student access to physical and virtual learning tools. Thirty-five low-income rising second and third graders who read below grade level, 13 tutors, and five caregivers participated. In summer 2020, trained tutors implemented Sound Partners in 1:1 thirty-minute Zoom sessions for 22 days. Data included students’ pre and posttest reading outcomes, instructional fidelity, and tutor and caregiver perceptions. Key considerations for the transformation of the intervention centered on intervention content and learning environment, attendance, and tutor selection and training. Results indicated strong student attendance and tutor fidelity. Students maintained reading fluency and accuracy skills, and improved by approximately 10 percentage points on curriculum-based mastery tests (p <.001, d = 1.25 to 1.30). Tutors and caregivers reported virtual SRI was feasible and effective. Results highlight the potential for positive outcomes when SRI is provided virtually.

We tested the effects of teaching reading skills through U.S. history content for 38 eighth-grade poor readers whose reading ability ranged from second- to fourth-grade levels. Half of the students received special education services, and half of the students were English language learners. Students were taught to decode multisyllabic words, learn meanings of academic words, and identify cause-and-effect relationships. They used easy levels of history text and then bridged into more difficult text accounts of the same events. Results showed gains in performance across each cycle in each reading component. Comparisons between students in the intervention and their typically developing peers showed stronger gains for intervention students in vocabulary and comprehension strategies. Students with disabilities who received instruction in causes and effects of historical events scored similarly to typical readers in their general education history classes.

We evaluated the effects of a summer reading intervention with a sample of low-income Black and Hispanic students who were struggling readers. In the summer before their 2nd- or 3rd-grade school year, 14 rising 2nd graders and 18 rising 3rd graders received 15 hr of a scripted, explicit phonics-based program in dyads from credentialed elementary school teachers. Students completed pre- and posttest measures of decoding, sight word reading, and reading fluency. Results indicated significant growth on most reading measures for rising 3rd graders. The school district also provided reading fluency and composite measures of reading for the intervention students and for a comparison sample of students who did not receive the intervention. There were few significant effects of the intervention between groups, but effect sizes on composite scores were meaningful and favored the intervention group. We discuss implications for providing summer reading support to students similar to the sample.

We explored the usefulness of first and second grade reading measures and responsiveness criteria collected within a response-to-intervention (RtI) framework for predicting reading disability (RD) in third grade. We used existing data from 387 linguistically diverse students who had participated in a longitudinal RtI study. Model-based predictors of RD were analyzed using logistic regression; isolated measure/criteria combinations for predicting RD were analyzed using classification analysis. Models yielded superior classification rates compared to single measure approaches and did not systematically misclassify English learners. However, particular first and second grade measure/criteria combinations also showed promise as isolated predictors of RD in word reading/text fluency. Model-based approaches were required for acceptable classification of students with RD in comprehension. Although the former finding is promising for early identification of students in need of more intensive instruction in lexical or fluency-based skills, the latter finding reaffirms literature attesting to the complexity of RD in comprehension and difficulty of predicting deficits using early measures of reading, which primarily assess word reading skill. Results replicated well with an independent sample, thus enhancing confidence in study conclusions. Implications regarding the use of RtI for predicting RD are discussed.