The adverse effects of climate change, which are associated with the rise in greenhouse gases, impact all nations worldwide. In this context, tropical forests play a critical role in carbon sequestration. However, the significant anthropogenic pressure on these forests contributes to accelerated deforestation and a decrease in their capacity to regulate the climate. This study uses a comprehensive review of 176 published scientific articles and reports to assess the carbon sequestration capacity of rubber plantations, comparing their effectiveness with that of natural tropical forests. The findings are largely consistent and indicate that agricultural systems, such as rubber plantations, which were not traditionally associated with carbon sequestration, play a significant role in this area. Rubber plantations present a complementary alternative to the rapid deforestation of tropical forests, with the capacity to sequester substantial amounts of carbon. The range of carbon storage potential for rubber plantations, spanning from 30 to over 100 tons per hectare, rivals that of natural tropical forests, which can store over 300 tons per hectare. Furthermore, rubber plantations are notable for their indirect carbon sequestration potential. By providing a sustainable source of latex and wood, and thus income, they can reduce the pressure on natural tropical forests. However, challenges remain, particularly concerning sustainable management and the integration of rubber plantations into sustainable tropical forest management strategies. This analysis focuses on the opportunities and challenges of rubber plantations as an offset solution for carbon sequestration. It highlights the prospects for effectively integrating these plantations into sustainable tropical forest management policies.

Preserving and restoring terrestrial ecosystems is essential to preventing the decline of life on Earth. To guide global conservation efforts, we present a detailed counterfactual map showing Earth’s natural tree, short vegetation, and bare ground cover. This map accounts for environmental filtering along with realistic scenarios of fire frequency and wildlife herbivory. The most likely scenario suggests 43% (5669 ± 74 Mha) of land could support trees, 39% (5183 ± 86 Mha) shrubs and grasses, and 18% (2352 ± 59 Mha) bare ground. Adjustments in fire and herbivory could shift a minimum of 675 Mha of land, stressing the importance of considering alternative outcomes when restoring a landscape. Our findings also suggest that adjustments in fire frequency and wildlife herbivory could have a greater impact on natural vegetation than expected climate changes by 2050, highlighting decision-makers’ responsibility to guide conservation and restoration toward a sustainable and biodiverse future.

The province of Sankuru, located within the Democratic Republic of Congo, is distinguished by its extensive rubber plantations, which have a long history in the region. These plantations have had a considerable impact on the region’s agrarian landscape over time. In addition to the exploitation of latex, for which the conditions are currently very limited, these plantations provide goods and services to the local population and are dominated by rural communities that are highly dependent on these natural resources. This study aimed to characterize the socio-demographic and agrarian profile of historical rubber plantations while assessing the occurrence of the ecosystem services (ESs) they provide. Particular attention will be paid to the farmers’ perceptions of these services, an essential element for the rational management of natural resources. This study used a mixed methodological approach, integrating semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and statistical analyses including chi-square testing and multiple correspondence factorial analysis (MCAFA) to obtain and analyze the data comprehensively. The results indicate that historical rubber plantations in Sankuru provide 21 ESs, which are grouped into four categories: eleven provisioning services, four regulating services, four cultural services, and two supporting services. It has been observed that local communities attach significant importance to the provision of services including the provision of firewood (96.67%) and the utilization of forest resources for traditional pharmacopoeia (91.33%). These plantations have come to be regarded as valuable cultural heritage by local communities over time. The younger generation evinces a greater interest in utility services than the older generation, which displays a preference for cultural services. However, older people demonstrate a more profound understanding of cultural and regulatory services. By emphasizing the species that contribute to ESs and recognizing plantations as cultural heritage, the study enhances the comprehension of the significance of local ecosystems. These findings provide a crucial foundation for directing local policy toward integrated management of historic rubber plantations in Sankuru. By considering the perceptions of local people, the study contributes to the sustainable conservation of these plantations for the present and future generations.

The province of Sankuru, located in the Democratic Republic of Congo, is home to historic rubber tree plantations (Hevea brasiliensis) that play a significant role in carbon storage. However, despite their ecological and economic importance, little is known about the actual carbon sequestration potential of these abandoned or poorly managed plantations, and their contribution to climate change mitigation remains poorly quantified. This lack of empirical data limits the integration of such plantations into national and global carbon offset and conservation strategies. To address this gap, this study aims to assess the carbon sequestration potential of these plantations, while analyzing their ecological implications for the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources. This study therefore aims to (i) quantify the above-ground carbon stock of historic rubber plantations in Sankuru, (ii) develop a local allometric model adapted to Hevea brasiliensis to improve biomass and carbon estimation accuracy, (iii) assess the ecological and economic implications of carbon storage—including its monetary valuation—and (iv) provide recommendations for integrating rubber plantations into carbon offset and sustainable management frameworks. A floristic inventory was conducted in 80 plots of 0.25 ha across two plantation types, measuring trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm. A local allometric equation was developed from destructive sampling of 48 rubber trees across eight diameter classes. The quadratic model selected based on statistical performance (RMSE = 0.02; adjusted R² = 0.9971), accurately estimated above-ground biomass and carbon storage. Results revealed that smallholder plantations stored 139.08 tC/ha (USD 6,537/ha), while state plantations stored 180.61 tC/ha (USD 8,489/ha). These findings highlight the significant role of historic rubber plantations as secondary carbon sinks, with strong potential for inclusion in climate mitigation and payment for ecosystem services schemes. The study recommends integrating sustainable management and biodiversity conservation practices to enhance both ecological and economic benefits in the Sankuru region.

1. Arid and semi-arid ecosystems cover 40.6% of Earth's land surface and support 2.3 billion people (UNCCD 2024), providing critical ecosystem services including wood production, carbon sequestrati...

The rubber plantations in Sankuru province, located in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), have historically been pivotal to the regional economy. However, the absence of suitable silvicultural practices has promoted self-regeneration, resulting in the proliferation of diverse species. This study aims to characterize species richness and plant structure of these plantations. To this end, 80 subplots measuring 0.25 hectares were meticulously established, with a proportionate division between state-owned and farmer plantations. The results obtained from this study indicate that these plantations are home to approximately 105 species, classified into 33 distinct botanical families, with dominant families such as Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Olacaceae, Clusiaceae, and Moraceae. Despite the similarity between the two types of plantations (Cs = 58%), significant disparities were observed in terms of individuals, 635 ± 84.06 and 828 ± 144.62 (p < 10⁻³); species, 41 ± 7.49 and 28 ± 4.59 (p < 10⁻³); families, 19 ± 3.06 and 16 ± 1.62 (p < 10⁻²); and basal area, 29.88 ± 5.8 and 41.37 ± 7.57 (p < 10⁻²) for state and peasant plantations, respectively. State plantations exhibited greater diversity (H′ = 1.87) and enhanced equity (J’ = 0.43) than peasant plantations. The diametric structure exhibited an inverted J-shaped distribution, indicating constant and regular regeneration of these plantations. The upper canopy dominates the vertical structure in both types of plantations, with a significantly higher proportion in peasant plantations (83.60%) than in state plantations (73.8%), ANOVA (F (2.24 = 21.78), df = 24; p = 4.03 × 10⁻⁶). The findings indicate that the sustainable management of these plantations could incorporate agroecological principles to promote the coexistence of rubber production and biodiversity conservation while contributing to the restoration of degraded ecosystems and the well-being of local communities.