Feeding a balanced diet such as total mixed ration (TMR) is a widely adopted feeding strategy providing a uniformly blended diet of roughages, concentrates, and supplements that enhances ruminant productivity by optimizing nutrient utilization, stabilizing rumen fermentation, and improving microbial activity. Scientific studies have confirmed that TMR increases dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield, and growth performance in dairy and beef cattle, as well as in sheep and goats. TMR’s advantages include consistent feed quality, reduced selective feeding, and improved feed efficiency. A key benefit of TMR is its ability to promote the production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which are the primary energy source for ruminants, particularly propionate. This enhances energy metabolism, resulting in higher carcass yields, increased milk production, and economic benefits compared to conventional or supplementary feeding systems. However, TMR feeding is also susceptible to mycotoxin contamination (e.g., aflatoxins, zearalenone), potential effects on methane emissions, and the need for precise formulation to maintain consistency and optimise profitability. Prevention and good practices, including routine inspection of feed for pathogens and vulnerable ingredients, as well as careful management of particle size and forage-to-concentrate ratios, are crucial in preventing subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) and the development of other subclinical diseases. Mycotoxin binders, such as hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate, can also reduce mycotoxin absorption. Another advantage of practicing TMR is that it can support sustainable farming by integrating agro-industrial byproducts, which minimises environmental impact. In conclusion, TMR is a widely adopted feeding strategy that significantly enhances ruminant productivity by optimizing nutrient utilization, stabilizing rumen fermentation, and improving microbial activity, leading to increased dry matter intake, milk yield, and growth performance. It offers key benefits such as consistent feed quality, reduced selective feeding, improved feed efficiency, and enhanced energy metabolism, providing economic advantages and supporting sustainable farming through agro-industrial byproduct integration. However, its implementation requires careful management to mitigate risks, including mycotoxin contamination, potential impacts on methane emissions, and digestive issues like SARA if formulation is not precise. Therefore, for sustainable production, future research should focus on optimizing TMR formulations with alternative ingredients (e.g., agro-industrial byproducts) and precision feeding strategies to enhance livestock health and animal productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.

Feeding a balanced diet such as total mixed ration (TMR) is a widely adopted feeding strategy providing a uniformly blended diet of roughages, concentrates, and supple-ments that enhances ruminant productivity by optimizing nutrient utilization, stabi-lizing rumen fermentation, and improving microbial activity. Scientific studies have confirmed that TMR increases dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield, and growth per-formance in dairy and beef cattle, as well as in sheep and goats. TMR’s advantages in-clude consistent feed quality, reduced selective feeding, and improved feed efficiency. A key benefit of TMR is its ability to promote the production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which are the primary energy source for ruminants, particularly propionate. This en-hances energy metabolism, resulting in higher carcass yields, increased milk produc-tion, and economic benefits compared to conventional or supplementary feeding sys-tems. However, TMR feeding is also susceptible to mycotoxin contamination (e.g., af-latoxins, zearalenone), potential effects on methane emissions, and the need for precise formulation to maintain consistency and optimise profitability. Prevention and good practices, including routine inspection of feed for pathogens and vulnerable ingredients, as well as careful management of particle size and forage-to-concentrate ratios, are crucial in preventing subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) and the development of other subclinical diseases. Mycotoxin binders, such as hydrated sodium calcium aluminosil-icate, can also reduce mycotoxin absorption. Another advantage of practicing TMR is that it can support sustainable farming by integrating agro-industrial byproducts, which minimises environmental impact. For sustainable production, future research should focus on optimizing TMR formulations with alternative ingredients (e.g., agro-industrial byproducts) and precision feeding strategies to enhance livestock health and animal productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.

Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L., Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae (BSFL) farming offers a dual solution for Africa by converting organic waste into nutrient-rich protein for animal feed and organic fertiliser (frass), addressing urban waste challenges and reducing reliance on unsustainable imports, such as fishmeal. However, realising these potential hinges on developing safe, efficient, scalable, and economically viable processing methods suitable for African conditions. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across academic databases (Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science) using keywords such as "black soldier fly larvae processing," "nutritional composition," and "antimicrobial properties." Peer-reviewed studies, technical reports, and conference papers were included to assess the impacts of harvesting, decontamination, drying, and nutrition. Optimising key steps is essential: robust harvesting (sieving or auto-collection depending on larval stage, substrate humidity, and particle size), effective microbial reduction via post-harvest processing (feed withdrawal, washing protocols needing refinement, especially for contaminated waste), killing methods (freezing, blanching, asphyxiation, mechanical disruption, each impacting nutritional quality, microbial safety, and animal welfare differently), and decontamination. Drying methods (low-temperature air, high-temperature air, oven, microwave, and freeze-drying) significantly influence the final product's safety, nutritional retention, and economic viability, involving trade-offs between speed, energy efficiency, protein and fat preservation, and cost. The nutritional composition of BSFL (protein: 27.54-55.42%, fat: 8.10-57.80%, ash: 3.90-33.0%, chitin: 3.87-9.62%) and functional properties (antimicrobial peptides, lauric acid; up to 52% of lipids) are highly variable, primarily dictated by the rearing substrate. This offers opportunities for tailored production but requires strict control of substrate safety to avoid heavy metal accumulation. Processing choices also directly impact protein digestibility and amino acid profiles. Optimising these processing parameters is fundamental to ensuring a safe, nutritious, and stable insect meal that meets regulatory standards, reduces post-harvest losses, improves economic viability for small-scale farmers, and unlocks the role of BSFL in circular economies, food security, waste management, and climate-resilient agriculture across Africa.