Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for self-driving vehicles are growing rapidly, requiring high-performance radar systems with strong communication abilities. The key component of these systems is the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), which performs at 24 GHz with low phase noise, low power consumption, and a wide range of tuning. In this paper, the adaptive particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm incorporates adaptive scaling to speed up the optimization process. The new adaptive PSO minimizes the number of calculations required for complex engineering problems where rapid optimization is crucial and finding the best solution quickly is important. In order to test the adaptive PSO, benchmark functions are used. When applied to the proposed VCO circuit design, it facilitates more efficient adjustment of component values and improved performance, resulting in faster optimization. This optimized VCO achieves low phase noise of −120 dBc/Hz with a 1 MHz offset and a tuning range of 21.2%, operates at just 0.9 V, and consumes just 1.35 mW of power. A comparison of adaptive PSOs with traditional PSO methods shows that they improve the performance of the VCO, making them a promising choice for future automotive radar systems.

An optimal CMOS up-conversion mixer is designed using a novel combination of genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization (Com_GAPSO) and improved-Kolmogorov–Arnold networks (Im_GKAN) for 5G communication. The proposed Im_GKAN, trained with Com_GAPSO, enhances optimization through social interactions and private cognition through social interactions. The proposed hybrid approach enables accurate parameter determination due to the effective modeling and compensation of nonlinearities in the up-conversion mixer. The proposed optimized mixer incorporates an enhanced linearity boosting technique (LBT) along with a tunable capacitive feedback common-source (TCF-CS) structure. This combination effectively suppresses third-order nonlinear distortion while compensating for parasitic capacitances to improve gain performance and enhance circuit stability. The proposed design achieves a peak conversion gain (CG) of approximately 4.2 dB near 24 GHz. In terms of isolation characteristics, the LO-IF isolation reaches about −44 dB. Additionally, the RF-IF isolation is around −30 dB, ensuring minimal undesired coupling between the input and output paths, while the LO-RF isolation is maintained near −39 dB. The optimized mixer exhibits an output 1 dB compression point (OP₁dB) of 5.1 dBm and an input 1 dB compression point (IP₁dB) of −1.1 dBm. The RF port shows a return loss of approximately −24 dB near 24 GHz. The LO port exhibits a return loss in the range of −3 to −5 dB, with improved matching observed over the operating band. Meanwhile, the IF port demonstrates strong matching at lower frequencies, with return loss values dropping below −20 dB. Furthermore, the measured optimized design achieves a minimum noise figure (NF) of approximately 3.8 dB at 24 GHz.