Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are among the most common and debilitating complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), affecting approximately 15–25% of patients and contributing to over 85% of non-traumatic amputations. DFUs impose a substantial clinical and economic burden due to high recurrence rates, prolonged wound care, and frequent hospitalizations, accounting for billions in healthcare costs worldwide. The multifactorial pathophysiology of DFUs involves peripheral neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease, chronic inflammation, and impaired tissue regeneration. Recent studies underscore the importance of immune dysregulation—specifically macrophage polarization imbalance, regulatory T cell dysfunction, and neutrophil impairment—as central mechanisms in wound chronicity. These immune disruptions sustain a pro-inflammatory environment dominated by cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, which impair angiogenesis and delay repair. This review provides an updated synthesis of DFU pathogenesis, emphasizing immune dysfunction and its therapeutic implications. We examine emerging strategies in immunomodulation, regenerative medicine, and AI-based wound technologies, including SGLT2 inhibitors, biologics, stem cell therapies, and smart dressing systems. These approaches hold promise for accelerating healing, reducing amputation risk, and personalizing future DFU care.

Penile prosthetic implants (PPIs) provide a definitive surgical solution for individuals requiring restoration of erectile function, most commonly due to medication-refractory erectile dysfunction (ED) or as part of gender-affirming surgical care. During the Anatomical Foundations of Clinical Practice (AFCP) course at Oakland University William Beaumont (OUWB) School of Medicine, a complete three-piece inflatable PPI was identified in a 66-year-old male donor with a medical history of congestive heart failure, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus type 2. The prosthesis included a fluid reservoir positioned in the lower abdominal cavity in the retropubic space, a scrotal pump with a release valve, and paired inflatable cylinders embedded within the penile shaft. This uncommon finding provided first-year medical students with a hands-on opportunity to examine the structure, placement, and function of a modern PPI. In addition to reinforcing foundational knowledge of ED treatment, the case highlighted the expanding clinical indications for penile implants, including their potential role in gender-affirming procedures. Integrating such real-world surgical findings into anatomical education enriches the learning experience of students and highlights the evolving scope of prosthetic urology across diverse patient populations.