Bone repair involves bone resorption through osteoclastogenesis and the stimulation of neovascularization and osteogenesis by endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). However, the role of EPCs in osteoclastogenesis is unclear. In this study, we assess the effects of EPC‐derived exosomes on the migration and osteoclastic differentiation of primary mouse bone marrow‐derived macrophages (BMMs) in vitro using immunofluorescence, western blotting, RT‐PCR and Transwell assays. We also evaluated the effects of EPC‐derived exosomes on the homing and osteoclastic differentiation of transplanted BMMs in a mouse bone fracture model in vivo. We found that EPCs cultured with BMMs secreted exosomes into the medium and, compared with EPCs, exosomes had a higher expression level of LncRNA‐MALAT1. We confirmed that LncRNA‐MALAT1 directly binds to miR‐124 to negatively control miR‐124 activity. Moreover, overexpression of miR‐124 could reverse the migration and osteoclastic differentiation of BMMs induced by EPC‐derived exosomes. A dual‐luciferase reporter assay indicated that the integrin ITGB1 is the target of miR‐124. Mice treated with EPC‐derived exosome‐BMM co‐transplantations exhibited increased neovascularization at the fracture site and enhanced fracture healing compared with those treated with BMMs alone. Overall, our results suggest that EPC‐derived exosomes can promote bone repair by enhancing recruitment and differentiation of osteoclast precursors through LncRNA‐MALAT1.

Although bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) are a main cell source for tissue-engineered bone (TEB), the clinical use of BMSCs is restricted due to the invasive bone marrow aspiration procedure and the decline in available number of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and differentiation potential with increasing age. Umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UCMSCs) are likely to be a promising alternative cell source for TEB due to their higher availability and potential to proliferate and differentiate. To assess this possibility, we studied bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2)-induced osteogenic differentiation and activation of signaling pathways in UCMSCs and BMSCs. UCMSCs showed a phenotype and differentiation potential similar to that of BMSCs. After 14 days of BMP2 treatment, the overall expression of several osteogenic-specific phenotypes (type I collagen, osteopontin, and osteocalcin) was similar for UCMSCs and BMSCs. The signaling pathway by which BMP2 induced differentiation of both cell types involved the membrane receptor-initiated signals including SMADs, P38, and extracellular regulated kinase. The similar characteristics of BMP2-induced osteogenic differentiation of UCMSCs and BMSCs in vitro would support the use of UCMSCs in TEB.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different frequencies of pulsed electromagnetic fields on the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Third-generation human mesenchymal stem cells were irradiated with different frequencies of pulsed electromagnetic fields, including 5, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 150 Hz, with a field intensity of 1.1 mT, for 30 minutes per day for 21 days. Changes in human mesenchymal stem cell morphology were observed using phase contrast microscopy. Alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin expression were also determined to evaluate human mesenchymal stem cell osteogenic differentiation.Different effects were observed on human mesenchymal stem cell osteoblast induction following exposure to different pulsed electromagnetic field frequencies. Levels of human mesenchymal stem cell differentiation increased when the pulsed electromagnetic field frequency was increased from 5 hz to 50 hz, but the effect was weaker when the pulsed electromagnetic field frequency was increased from 50 Hz to 150 hz. The most significant effect on human mesenchymal stem cell differentiation was observed at of 50 hz.The results of the current study show that pulsed electromagnetic field frequency is an important factor with regard to the induction of human mesenchymal stem cell differentiation. Furthermore, a pulsed electromagnetic field frequency of 50 Hz was the most effective at inducing human mesenchymal stem cell osteoblast differentiation in vitro.