To assess the association between maternal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and low birth weight (LBW)/prematurity (PTD), we conducted a meta-analysis of cohort studies of HIV infected and uninfected women. Several English and Chinese databases were searched (updated to May 2015) to find the studies reporting infant outcomes associated with exposure to maternal HIV infection during pregnancy. Relevant articles were manually selected based on several inclusion and exclusion criteria. Fifty-two cohort studies including 15,538 (for LBW) and 200,896 (for PTD) HIV infected women met the inclusion criteria. There was significant heterogeneity among studies for maternal HIV infection associated with LBW/PTD (I2 = 71.7 %, P < 0.05, and I2 = 51.8 %, P < 0.05 for LBW and PTD, respectively). The meta-analysis demonstrated that the maternal HIV infection was significantly associated with both LBW (pooled odds ratio (OR): 1.73, 95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.64, 1.82, P < 0.001) and PTD (pooled OR: 1.56, 95 % CI: 1.49, 1.63, P < 0.001). No significant difference in the relationship between maternal HIV infection and adverse pregnancy outcomes was detected among the groups of different study periods. HIV infected women were at slightly higher risk of LBW in developing countries compared with women in developed countries (OR: 2.12 (95 % CI: 1.81, 2.48) vs. 1.75 (95 % CI: 1.44, 2.12)). Antiretroviral drugs usage did not significantly change the associations of maternal HIV exposure with LBW and PTD. HIV infected women were at higher risk of having a low birth weight infant or a preterm delivery infant compared with uninfected women. Such associations did not change significantly over time or were not significantly affected by the usage of antiretroviral drugs.

Cryptosporidium spp. is an important intestinal protozoan causing diarrhea in humans, livestock, and wild animals. Cryptosporidium infection remains a major public health issue, but its epidemiology in humans is still unclear, particularly in rural China. This study was designed to determine the prevalence of and risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection in a rural southwestern Chinese community. A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted among 687 residents of a small town in a Yi autonomous prefecture of southwest China in 2014. Blood samples were examined using a broad set of quality-controlled diagnostic methods for hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Stool specimens were processed using the modified acid-fast staining method, and microscopically examined for Cryptosporidium infection. Univariable and multivariable analyses were performed to determine the risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium infection. The majority of the participants were Yi people with poor living conditions and unsatisfactory hygiene habits, and the study area was of very low socioeconomic status. Of the 615 individuals included in the analysis, 14 (2.3%) were HIV positive, 51 (8.3%) were infected with HBV, and 74 (12.0%) had Cryptosporidium infection. The prevalences of HIV/HBV, HIV/Cryptosporidium, and HBV/Cryptosporidium co-infections were 0.3%, 0.3%, and 1.8%, respectively. The prevalence of HBV infection was higher in individuals with Cryptosporidium infection (χ 2 = 5.00, P = 0.03). Owning livestock or poultry was an important risk factor for Cryptosporidium infection (aOR = 2.27, 95% CI: 1.01–5.08, P < 0.05). Cryptosporidium infection was significantly associated with HBV infection (aOR = 3.42, 95% CI: 1.47–7.92, P < 0.01), but not with HIV infection (aOR = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.07–4.39, P = 0.59). The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection was high in the rural area of southwestern China that was investigated, and there was a significant association between HBV infection and Cryptosporidium infection. Further investigations are needed to determine the significance of Cryptosporidium infection in patients infected with HBV.

Intestinal helminths do not cause severe diseases in general, however, when combined with other diseases such as immunodeficiency diseases, there would be massive complications. Infections with Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) may lead to immunological disturbances and defects of cellular immunity and there is a need of clarification whether HBV infections are associated with infections with intestinal helminths. A community-based cross sectional study was conducted in Tezi town, Puge County of the Liangshan Prefecture, southwestern China from October 23rd to November 3rd, 2014. Four hundred and thirty eight people (median age = 37 years, IQR = 22–49) were enrolled in this study. Modified Kato-Katz thick smear was used to detect intestinal helminths. HBV DNA was quantified to confirm HBV infection. Among the 438 participants, 9.1 %, 13.5 % and 30.6 % were infected with HBV, A. lumbricoides (L., 1758) and T. trichiura (L., 1771), respectively; 7.1 % (30/438) were infected with both A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura and 2.3 % (10/438) were co-infected with HBV and A. lumbricoides. The multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that age (21–30 years versus >50 years: OR = 6.66, 95 % CI = 2.15–20.68), drug abuse (OR = 6.96, 95 % CI = 1.11–43.90), A. lumbricoides infection (OR = 3.60, 95 % CI = 1.48–8.75), fertilization with faeces after disposal (OR = 0.15, 95 % CI = 0.04–0.47) and working on a farm (OR = 4.59, 95 % CI = 1.44–14.63) were significantly associated with HBV infection. Having toilets at home was negatively related to A. lumbricoides infection (OR = 0.52, 95 % CI = 0.27–0.98) and T. trichiura infection (OR = 0.48, 95 % CI = 0.28–0.80). Ascaris lumbricoides was independently associated with HBV infection, and faeces might be the medium of HBV transmission. Improving hygiene conditions and habits are essential to reduce the risks of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura infections.