Purpose: Virtual influencers (computer-generated characters on social media) have rapidly emerged as pivotal marketing personas. However, prior reviews lack integrative frameworks and often overlook recent conflicting findings. This study synthesizes the literature, resolves contradictions and proposes future research directions. Design/methodology/approach: Drawing on affordance-actualization theory and cognitive behavioral theory, this study conducts a framework-based systematic review of 88 peer-reviewed articles published between 2016 and 2024. Findings: The analysis identifies three core dimensions: (1) affordance characteristics (sensory, social and functional), (2) actualization processes (cognitive and emotional mechanisms) and (3) behavioral outcomes (e.g. purchase intention and engagement). Conflicting findings are reconciled, and 13 research propositions are proposed to guide future inquiry. Research limitations/implications: This study provides a comprehensive framework for virtual influencer research by integrating affordance-actualization and cognitive behavioral theories. It addresses gaps in fragmented literature, reconciles conflicting findings and proposes 13 future research directions. The framework organizes virtual influencer impacts into affordance characteristics, actualization processes and behavioral outcomes, offering a structured approach for advancing theory in this emerging field. Practical implications: The study offers actionable insights for brands using virtual influencers, emphasizing the importance of image, interactivity and content in driving consumer decisions. It highlights risks like consumer skepticism and privacy concerns, suggesting transparency and authentic content to build trust. Policymakers are urged to balance innovation with consumer protection, fostering a sustainable digital economy. Originality/value: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review to systematically integrate fragmented virtual influencer research through dual theoretical lenses. It offers a structured framework for academics and actionable strategies for practitioners.

As an emerging marketing tool, virtual influencers (VIs) have attracted increasing scholarly attention. However, existing research predominantly adopts linear causal analysis models, which fail to capture the complex, nonlinear interaction between consumers and VIs. Grounded in the 5W communication model and utilizing a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), this study systematically explores how different configurational paths influence consumer engagement, drawing on empirical data from 205 participants. The findings reveal that (1) the synergy of entertainment, information, and credibility is a core prerequisite for achieving high engagement; (2) two equivalent paths—namely, the technology-driven path (media richness + content synergy) and the cognition-driven path (technology acceptance + content synergy)—lead to high engagement, both with a solution consistency of 0.98; and (3) the joint absence of content, media richness, and audience cognition results in low engagement. Theoretically, this study challenges traditional linear approaches by validating causal asymmetry and revealing configurational interdependencies among communication elements. It also extends the Media Richness Theory (MRT) and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) into the context of virtual influencer (VI) marketing. Practically, the proposed dynamic configuration model offers marketers a novel framework for optimizing VI campaigns through resource-adaptive strategies.

Compared to human influencer marketing, virtual influencer marketing has garnered widespread attention due to certain advantages. However, being intrinsically generated and driven by computer programs, they are not without limitations. This implies the existence of boundary conditions in the application of virtual influencer marketing. While there have been numerous reports of both successes and failures in the practical application of virtual influencers, the academic community has yet to provide a comprehensive theoretical explanation for the effectiveness of virtual influencer marketing. Researchers have attempted to address this gap by constructing a model that leverages consumer control and sensory experience to explain the influence of virtual (vs. human) influencers on consumers’ continuous purchase intentions. The findings indicate that virtual (vs. human) influencers enhance consumers’ perception of behavioral and cognitive control, which in turn positively influences their continuous purchase intention. Interestingly, the study found that when endorsing geometric products, virtual (vs. human) influencers stimulate a stronger perception of behavioral and cognitive control. However, when sharing material products, human (vs. virtual) influencers are more effective. This research not only deepens our understanding of the marketing effects of virtual influencers but also provides empirical evidence that can guide product selection for virtual influencer endorsements.

Purpose: This study aims to resolve a key paradox in influencer marketing: why brands are increasingly designing virtual influencers with aesthetic imperfections (e.g. freckles), despite conventional wisdom suggesting that perfection is key. It investigates when and why these imperfections enhance consumer engagement, specifically by comparing their effects on virtual versus human influencers. Design/methodology/approach: The research employs two main experiments and a supplementary robustness study. Participants were exposed to images of either a virtual or a human influencer, both manipulated to have aesthetic imperfections. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and a moderated mediation model to test the proposed theoretical framework. Findings: The two main studies show that aesthetically imperfect virtual influencers elicit higher consumer engagement than aesthetically imperfect human influencers, partly through perceived scarcity. A supplementary study further rules out perceived authenticity and anthropomorphism as alternative mediators and shows that the effect extends to purchase intention, especially under symbolic product appeal framing. Practical implications: Brands can enhance virtual influencer engagement by using minor aesthetic imperfections as scarcity cues, especially for consumers seeking uniqueness and symbolic products. Originality/value: This study compares consumer responses to aesthetic imperfections in virtual and human influencers. It helps reconcile mixed findings in the literature and advances theory by identifying perceived scarcity as a psychological mechanism that enhances virtual influencer appeal. The study also extends scarcity theory to the digital context and offers practical guidance for designing “perfectly imperfect” virtual personas that engage targeted consumer segments.