Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, significantly driven by chronic inflammation. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) are critical inflammatory cytokines implicated in CVD progression. This systematic review evaluates the roles of IL-6 and IL-1β in CVDs by synthesizing data from relevant studies to understand their impact on cardiovascular outcomes and identify potential therapeutic interventions. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed and Embase, covering studies from January 2014 to December 2024. Inclusion criteria encompassed studies investigating IL-6 and/or IL-1β in CVDs, including human and relevant animal models, and reporting clinical outcomes, molecular mechanisms, or therapeutic interventions. Data extraction and quality assessment were performed independently by two reviewers. Our review included 12 studies focusing on the roles of IL-6 and IL-1β in various CVDs. Elevated IL-6 levels were significantly associated with peripheral artery disease, myocardial infarction, and heart failure, while IL-1β levels were linked to worse outcomes in coronary artery disease and heart failure. Meta-analyses indicated a significant association between higher IL-6 and IL-1β levels and increased risk of adverse cardiovascular events. These findings suggest that targeting IL-6 and IL-1β could offer promising therapeutic strategies for reducing inflammation and improving cardiovascular outcomes.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), produced through fermentation of dietary fibers by gut bacteria, play a central role in modulating cardiovascular function and heart failure (HF) development. The progression of HF is influenced by intestinal barrier dysfunction and microbial translocation, where SCFAs serve as key mediators in the gut–heart axis. This review examines the complex metabolic interactions between SCFAs and other gut microbiota metabolites in HF, including their relationships with trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), aromatic amino acids (AAAs), B vitamins, and bile acids (BAs). We analyze the associations between SCFA production and clinical parameters of HF, such as left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Gaining insights into metabolic networks offers new potential therapeutic targets and prognostic markers for managing heart failure, although their clinical significance needs further exploration.

Background: Kidney transplantation (KTx) significantly improves survival and quality of life in patients with end-stage renal disease. However, post-transplant well-being is influenced by multiple factors, including healthcare accessibility, satisfaction with medical care, and psychological health. This study aimed to assess the well-being of post-KTx patients in Kazakhstan and examine its associations with healthcare access, satisfaction, and anxiety. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 223 post-KTx patients in Kazakhstan. Participants were recruited through online surveys and telephone interviews. Only patients who had undergone transplantation within Kazakhstan were included. The WHO-5 Well-Being Index was used to measure well-being, and additional surveys assessed healthcare access, satisfaction with post-KTx care, and treatment-related anxiety. Multiple linear regression was performed to identify predictors of well-being. Results: The mean WHO-5 well-being score was 66.1 (SD = 24.6), indicating moderate well-being. Satisfaction with post-transplant information (β = 0.287, p = 0.015) and educational level (β = 0.172, p = 0.019) were significant positive predictors of well-being. In contrast, post-KTx anxiety (β = −0.154, p = 0.024) and difficulties in accessing medical care (β = −0.216, p = 0.014) negatively affected well-being. Patients residing in rural areas reported greater barriers to post-transplant care compared to those in urban settings (χ² = 31.6, p = 0.002). Conclusions: Post-KTx well-being in Kazakhstan is influenced by educational level, access to healthcare, satisfaction with medical information, and anxiety levels. Targeted interventions to improve access to post-transplant care, enhance patient education, and address psychological distress may help improve outcomes for post-KTx patients.

Background: Apolipoprotein B (ApoB), a key component of atherogenic lipoproteins, has been increasingly implicated in cardiometabolic disorders beyond dyslipidemia. However, its role in glycemic dysregulation remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between ApoB levels and glycemic parameters, including fasting glucose, insulin resistance, and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), in individuals without diagnosed diabetes. Methods: This study was conducted at the National Research Cardiac Surgery Center (Kazakhstan) over the period between 2023 and 2024 as a cross-sectional analysis. Adults aged ≥ 20 years without diagnosed diabetes and with complete data on their ApoB and glycemic markers were included. Associations between ApoB and fasting plasma glucose (FPG), HbA1c, and HOMA-IR were assessed using multivariable linear and logistic regression models adjusted for demographic, lifestyle, and metabolic covariates. Results: Higher ApoB levels were significantly associated with increased fasting glucose (β = 2.07 mg/dL per 1-SD increase in ApoB, p < 0.001), higher HbA1c (β = 0.06%, p < 0.001), and elevated HOMA-IR (β = 0.54, p < 0.001). Participants in the highest ApoB quartile had 53% higher odds of prediabetes (adjusted OR = 1.53; 95% CI: 1.22–1.91; p < 0.001) compared to the lowest quartile. These associations remained significant after adjusting for BMI, lipid levels, and other confounders. Conclusions: Elevated ApoB is independently associated with adverse glycemic profiles in nondiabetic individuals, suggesting its potential role in early glucose metabolism disturbances.

Background: Lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) is a genetically determined lipoprotein that plays an independent role in the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Ethnic differences in Lp(a) levels are well-documented, yet regional data from Central Asia, particularly Kazakhstan, remain scarce. Methods: We conducted a retrospective, single-center study involving 3727 patients aged ≥ 18 years who underwent Lp(a) testing between January 2023 and June 2024. Participants were stratified by self-reported ethnicity and atherosclerosis status confirmed via coronary angiography. Lp(a) levels were analyzed using immunoturbidimetric assays. Results: Elevated Lp(a) levels (≥50 mg/dL) were identified in 19.6% of the total population. While Kazakhs exhibited a slightly higher prevalence of elevated Lp(a) compared to Russians, there were no statistically significant differences in Lp(a) levels across ethnic groups. ROC analysis revealed limited discriminatory power of Lp(a) for diagnosing atherosclerosis (AUC = 0.5464), although PRC analysis showed high sensitivity and precision in both Kazakh and Russian subgroups at lower thresholds. Conclusions: Despite modest ethnic variation in Lp(a) distribution, its predictive value for atherosclerosis remains limited as a standalone marker. These findings highlight the need for population-specific thresholds and support incorporating Lp(a) testing in broader cardiovascular risk assessment strategies in Central Asia.