Human‐gray wolf conflict over livestock depredation and absence of mitigation measures is a key threat leading to the decline of wolf populations in Pakistan, where gray wolves are endangered. In this study, we collected data from January 2019 to September 2021, and human–wolf conflict and mitigation measures were investigated by interviews with 200 shepherds that were randomly selected from 43 different human settlements. We used binary logistic GLM models to predict landscape features related to gray wolf conflict patterns. Over the 3 years of the study, the gray wolf was responsible for 963 livestock losses and 244.50 million rupees (1,381,388.14 USD) in economic loss in summer, and 798 livestock losses along with 169.31 million rupees (956,608.1356 USD) economic loss in winter for the same 200 shepherds in Shigar valley. Our questionnaires revealed that shepherds hold negative attitudes toward the species when there is inadequate compensation by the several government department.

Mammals, being social creatures communicate through a variety of signal cues, thus it is vital to understand how wild carnivores create and maintain connections with their neighbors for their survival. However, observing elusive species in their natural habitats poses significant challenges leading to scarcities of data. In this study, we aimed to provide a detailed long‐term observation of snow leopards in the northern region of Pakistan, hence we utilized data from 136 camera traps between 2018 and 2023 in order to investigate the territorial marking behavior of snow leopards in Baltistan. We documented 813 sightings of snow leopards with 103 videos showing territorial marking behavior from 40 sightings during snow presence and 63 on snow‐free days. Nine unique communication behaviors were identified during the presence or absence of snow cover. We observed that snow leopard marking behavior occurred more often at night in the absence of snow and less often during the day in the presence of snow. The marking activities were higher during the crepuscular period in the presence of snow and showed a preference for marking activities in open areas over mixed herbaceous and shrub habitats. Olfaction and scraping were observed more frequently in open areas while fecal deposition was found in herbaceous and shrub habitats. Scraping and urine spraying were associated with cliffs, rocky outcrops and boulders in open areas. In conclusion, our findings discovered new insights into the marking patterns of snow leopards during both day and night, having taken into consideration the influence of snow conditions. Moreover, the identified marking locations hold significant potential as powerful assets for wildlife preservation initiatives.

We measured the alert distance (AD), flight-initiation distance (FID), buffer distance (BD), and distance fled (DF) of Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana) from four populations experiencing human disturbances of the same persistence but different intensities when subjected to varied stimuli (a running or walking man with or without a leashed dog and a dog alone). We analyzed the effects of different stimuli on the AD, FID, BD, and DF of marmots from each population and the relationship among the AD, FID, and DF to illustrate the escape strategy diversification of the studied marmots for different human disturbances when disturbed by varied stimuli. We found that intra-population diversification emerged when the marmots were threatened by different stimuli. The AD and FID were shorter when an individual was walking toward than when he was running toward the focal marmots. A man with a leashed dog as a stimulus produced a similar result to that of a man alone. Nevertheless, no diversification emerged when a single dog was the threat, and all three distances triggered due to the dog were significantly shorter than those triggered due to a man alone (walking or running) or a man with a leashed dog approaching the marmots. Inter-population diversification also emerged when the marmots from the four populations were disturbed by the same stimulus: when threatened by an individual or a man with a leashed dog, their escape behavior was determined by the intensity of the disturbance. The changes in the AD and FID were similar across all four populations, with the two distances increasing with the decrease in disturbance intensity, but the DF showed no significant variation across all the four areas. No significant inter-population diversification emerged when the marmots were threatened by a single dog. These diversifications may result from the different levels of habituation of marmots to human disturbances and the different sizes and, consequently, visibilities of humans and dogs.

The presence of apex predators is crucial for ecosystem structuring, yet the impacts of rapid climate change on these species and their ecological communities remain poorly understood. This study investigates the cascading effects of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) on the diversity and abundance of mesopredators and prey in the high-altitude ecosystems of Baltistan, Pakistan. Using extensive camera trapping data (November 2018 - April 2023) and statistical analyses (SEMs, GAMMs, overlap models), we assessed spatio-temporal interactions modulated by climatic factors. Our results demonstrate that snow cover is a critical driver of species activity and distribution. During snow presence, snow leopards were most active in the late afternoon, while foxes preferred twilight hours, with significant temporal overlap between leopards, martens (p<0.001), and markhor (p<0.022). In the absence of snow, activity patterns shifted significantly: leopards became diurnal, foxes were active at dawn (p=0.041), martens at night (p<0.001), ibex at dawn (p=0.021), and markhor during midday (p=0.012). Abundance was also climate-dependent; without snow, leopard detection was linked to cloud cover and temperature, foxes to wind at lower elevations, markhor preferred higher elevations, and martens avoided lower elevations. These findings reveal that the snow leopard, as an apex predator, exerts complex top-down and bottom-up forces that regulate mammalian community structure across temporal scales. This research provides critical baseline data on predator-prey dynamics, highlighting the importance of spatio-temporal considerations for effective conservation and habitat management of this vulnerable ecosystem under a changing climate.

Human disturbances, such as habitat destruction and overharvesting, are greatly harming ecosystems and causing significant declines in biodiversity. Although protected areas play a crucial role in conserving terrestrial mammals, nearly non-protected areas (N-PAs) have similar functions, harbor high biodiversity and ecosystem integrity, and deserve to be protected. To identify the conservation value of mammalian species in critical ecosystems within N-PAs, we conducted a camera-trap survey in Luolong County, Tibet, from November 2019 to June 2023, monitoring 159 sites and documenting 25 mammalian species across 28 similar or dissimilar habitats. We found this area was an integrity ecosystem with higher species richness and diversity in scrub and evergreen forests with notable occurrence of herbivores comprising musk deer, chinese serow, woolly hares and carnivores such as the common leopard, snow leopards, red foxes and stone marten. Mammalian species occurrence increased away from human activities. Different habitats and seasons influenced diversity and species interactions. Key findings include species preferences for specific habitats, such as blue sheep on southern slopes during snow, musk deer in mixed forests, and red foxes avoiding alpine meadows. Habitat type, elevation, and human disturbance significantly impacted species distribution and behavior. The study also found that snow leopard activity time negatively correlates with woolly hare, while common leopards are influenced positively by hares and negatively by brown bears. Red foxes are slightly more active near the chinese serow occurrence areas. Other predators and prey, such as eurasian lynx, gray wolves, musk deer and stone martens show specific seasonal and interspecific interactions, with some relationships explaining small portions of variation. Overall, species temporal detection events are interconnected through complex ecological interactions. These findings improve our understanding of habitat hosting for rare species and the balance of endangered prey and predator communities in N-PAs in Tibet, emphasizing their significance for conservation efforts.

Breeding and intraspecific communication are crucial for the behavioral ecology of solitary carnivores. studying communication behaviors and observing cubs in their natural habitat pose challenges. During a seven-year research project (2015–2022) in northern Pakistan, thirty-two motion-triggered cameras were strategically placed to capture leopard behaviors. The study documented a total of 103 leopard events, with 40 occurrences in snowy conditions and 63 in snow-free areas. Nine unique communication behaviors were identified and the cameras recorded ten videos showing leopard cubs with their mother.The study revealed that snow leopards were more active in marking behaviors in snow-free areas at night and less active when snow was present. Crepuscular activities had the highest frequency with snow, while daytime, nocturnal activities had lower values. Snow leopards exhibited more marking activities in open areas and less in mixed herbaceous and shrub habitats. Daytime marking peaked in the evening with snow and at midnight without snow. Olfaction and scraping were more common in open land, while fecal deposition was frequently seen in mixed herbaceous and shrub habitats. Scraping and urine spraying were associated with cliffs and rock outcrops/boulders in open areas. Snow leopards tended to avoid scrape marks in snowy conditions, preferring urine spraying or olfaction behaviors. However, in snowless areas, leopards preferred scraping and urine marking. The study also documented ten videos of a female with cubs across various study sites. These behaviors, similar to those of other solitary felids, help understand communication behaviors among different species of solitary felids in different environmental conditions