Temporal information can be retained and manipulated in working memory. Neural oscillatory changes in working memory were examined by varying temporal working memory load. Electroencephalography was obtained from 18 subjects performing a temporal version of the visual n-back working memory task (n = 1 or 2). Electroencephalography revealed that posterior alpha power decreased and temporal region-distributed beta power increased as working memory load increased. This result is consistent with previous findings that posterior alpha band reflects inhibition of task-irrelevant information. Furthermore, findings from this study suggest that temporal region-distributed beta band activity is engaged in the active maintenance of temporal duration in working memory.

Spatiotemporal interference has attracted increasing attention because it provides a window for studying the neural representation of magnitude in the brain. We aimed to identify the neural basis of spatiotemporal interference using a Kappa effect task in which two circles were presented in sequence with two time intervals and three space distances. Participants reproduced the time intervals while ignoring the space distance when electroencephalogram signals were recorded synchronously. The behavior results showed that production time increased with time interval and space distance. Offset of the time intervals elicited typical P2 and P3b components. Larger parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were elicited by the combination of longer time intervals and longer space distances. The parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were positively correlated with the production time, and the corresponding neural source was located in the parietal cortex. The results suggest that the parietal P2 and P3b index updates a common representation of spatiotemporal information in working memory, which provides electrophysiological evidence for the mechanisms underlying spatiotemporal interferences. Our study supports a theory of magnitude, in which different dimensions can be integrated into a common magnitude representation in a generalized magnitude system that is localized at the parietal cortex.

In the Kappa effect, two visual stimuli are given, and their spatial distance affects their perceived temporal interval. The classical model assumes constant speed while a competing Bayesian model assumes a slow speed prior. The two models are based on different assumptions about the statistical structure of the environment. Here we introduce a new visual experiment to distinguish between these models. When fit to the data, both the two models replicated human response, but the slowness model makes better behavioral predictions than the speed constancy model, and the estimated constant speed is close to the absolute threshold of speed. Our findings suggest that the Kappa effect appears to be due to slow speeds, and also modulated by spatial variance.

The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) is one of the most well-known and widely used measures of time perspective. Various short versions were proposed to resolve the psychometric problems of the ZTPI. The present study conducted a systematic review to obtain 25 short versions, calculated the frequency of each item of the ZTPI in short versions, and hypothesized that the more frequent the item is, the more robust it becomes. The hypothesis was tested by assessing the structural validity and internal consistency of short forms with high, medium, and low frequent items in Chinese samples (575 children, 407 undergraduates, and 411 older adults). Structural validity and internal consistency analyses showed that the form with more frequent items had better psychometric properties; item frequencies were positively correlated with factor loadings. The results suggest that the systematic review is an effective approach to identify the robust items of the ZTPI. This approach is general and can be the basis to improve the psychometric properties of scales in social science.