Introduction: Cognitive impairment can emerge as part of aging or from conditions affecting brain function, such as stroke, brain tumors, delirium, and neurodegenerative diseases. Effective cognitive assessment in clinical practice requires brief, reliable tests that evaluate specific cognitive domains. The MMSE (Mini-Mental State Examination) and MoCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment) are among the most frequently used tools for these evaluations, each offering unique insights. Purpose of Research: This study aims to compare the effectiveness of MMSE and MoCA in diagnosing cognitive impairment and determining their suitability in various clinical settings and patient profiles. Materials and Methods: The analysis includes 61 articles from databases such as PubMed and Scopus, identified using keywords: Neuropsychological Tests, Cognitive Function Tests, MMSE and MoCA. Basic Results: The results indicate that MMSE, while effective for initial dementia screening, is less sensitive to mild cognitive impairment and influenced by education and age. MoCA offers higher sensitivity for MCI and early Alzheimer's stages, making it valuable as a complementary tool to MMSE. Conclusions: Combining MMSE and MoCA assessments can enhance diagnostic accuracy across diverse clinical contexts. Each tool’s unique strengths contribute to a more comprehensive cognitive assessment approach, optimizing diagnostic strategies for specific patient needs.

Introduction: Liver dysfunction can significantly impact the central nervous system (CNS), leading to neuropsychiatric complications such as hepatic encephalopathy (HE). HE, a potentially reversible condition, results from the accumulation of toxins, particularly ammonia, which a diseased liver fails to detoxify, affecting brain function. It is commonly associated with chronic liver diseases like cirrhosis but can also occur acutely in cases of fulminant liver failure. Purpose of Research: This review aims to explore the mechanisms linking liver dysfunction to brain impairment in HE and to summarize recent findings on liver disease's effects on CNS dysfunction. Materials and Methods: The review synthesizes findings from 45 studies on HE pathogenesis and treatment, published between 2003 and 2024. These studies, sourced from PubMed and Scopus, focus on mechanisms including ammonia toxicity, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter imbalance. Basic Results: HE pathogenesis is multifactorial, with systemic metabolic disturbances causing complex interactions among neurotoxic ammonia buildup, chronic neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter imbalances. Traditional therapies like lactulose and rifaximin primarily target ammonia reduction, while newer treatments, including ammonia scavengers, anti-inflammatory agents, and antioxidants, address specific pathogenic pathways. The gut-liver-brain axis, involving gut microbiota's role in CNS functioning, presents promising avenues for adjunctive treatment. Conclusions: Addressing HE requires a multifaceted approach, including ammonia reduction, inflammation control, and neurotransmitter balance restoration. Traditional therapies remain central to HE management, but emerging treatments and modulation of gut microbiota may enhance outcomes and improve quality of life for patients with liver disease-related brain dysfunction.

IntroductionSmall Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO) syndrome has emerged as a significant clinical issue associated with various gastrointestinal and systemic conditions. The syndrome is characterized by an excessive proliferation of bacteria in the small intestine, leading to symptoms such as bloating, diarrhoea, constipation, abdominal pain, and malabsorption. These symptoms contribute to a decline in patients' quality of life, malnutrition, and nutritional deficiencies. Despite its clinical relevance, SIBO remains underdiagnosed in routine practice. Purpose of ResearchThis study aims to review the current understanding of the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic approaches, and treatment options for SIBO, with a focus on improving clinical recognition and management. Materials and Methods A comprehensive literature review was conducted, analyzing 31 articles sourced from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The search was based on the keywords: SIBO, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth syndrome, dysbiosis, diagnosis of SIBO, and treatments of SIBO. Articles published between 2011 and 2024 were included, with at least 80% of the sources published after 2015 to ensure up-to-date information. Basic Results SIBO is associated with diverse etiological factors, including gastrointestinal motility disorders, anatomical abnormalities, and immune deficiencies. Diagnosis primarily relies on clinical history and breath tests, though these have limitations in accuracy. Antimicrobial therapy, alongside management of nutritional deficiencies and the underlying condition, are the cornerstone of treatment. ConclusionsSIBO presents with nonspecific symptoms commonly seen in clinical practice, especially in elderly and high-risk patients. Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment can significantly improve patients' quality of life.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), represents a significant global public health challenge. While respiratory symptoms dominate, the virus's impact on other systems, particularly the central nervous system (CNS), has gained increasing attention. SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates tropism for Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors, expressed in the olfactory epithelium, lungs, endothelium, kidneys, enterocytes, and neurons, contributing to neurological manifestations observed during the acute phase of the disease. Materials and Methods: A literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect databases. Keywords included: COVID-19, Post Acute COVID-19 Syndrome, SARS-CoV-2 Virus, Neurological Manifestations, and Central Nervous System Viral Diseases. A total of 58 articles were selected for analysis based on relevance and quality of evidence regarding neurological symptoms and complications associated with COVID-19. Basic Results: The acute phase of COVID-19 frequently involves neurological symptoms such as frontal and holocranial headaches, dizziness, gustatory and olfactory dysfunctions, and alterations in consciousness. Severe complications, though less common, include encephalitis, ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, cerebral venous thrombosis, and myelitis. These conditions often present as altered mental status, seizures, aphasia, headaches, or focal deficits, contributing substantially to patient morbidity and mortality. Conclusions: Neurological symptoms and complications constitute a significant aspect of COVID-19, highlighting the virus's potential to affect the CNS. While severe complications are rare, their profound impact on prognosis underscores the importance of early recognition and management. Further research is essential to understand the pathophysiology and optimise therapeutic approaches for affected patients.

Primitive intracranial arteries, including the trigeminal, proatlantal, otic, hypoglossal, and stapedial arteries, are embryonic vascular structures that temporarily connect the anterior and posterior, or intracranial and extracranial, circulations before typically regressing during development. Their persistence into adulthood, although rare, may alter local haemodynamics, contributing to aneurysm formation, vessel stenosis, or cranial nerve dysfunction. However, given the low incidence of associated pathologies, the mere presence of a persistent primitive anastomosis is not considered a concern for aneurysm formation. The persistent trigeminal artery is the most commonly observed persistent intracranial artery, with an incidence rate of up to 0.6%. It is followed by the persistent hypoglossal artery, present in 0.02–0.09% of cases, and the persistent proatlantal artery, with an incidence of 0.03%, while others, such as the otic and stapedial arteries, are exceptionally rare. Each persistent anastomosis has distinct embryological origins, anatomical variants, and potential roles in cerebrovascular compensation. Although persistent arteries may serve as collateral pathways in cases of cerebrovascular stenosis or occlusion, they can also pose risks during neurosurgical and endovascular procedures. Given their potential association with vascular pathologies in some cases, precise recognition of these arteries via imaging is essential to prevent misdiagnosis and optimise therapeutic strategies. This study provides a comprehensive review of the embryology, anatomy, and clinical relevance of persistent primitive intracranial arteries, aiming to enhance understanding, facilitate diagnosis, and improve treatment planning in cerebrovascular interventions.