Lichens, composite organisms resulting from the symbiotic association between the fungi and algae, produce a variety of secondary metabolites that exhibit pharmacological activities. This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory activities of the secondary metabolite atraric acid produced by Heterodermia hypoleuca. The results confirmed that atraric acid could regulate induced pro-inflammatory cytokine, nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, induced nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Meanwhile, atraric acid downregulated the expression of phosphorylated IκB, extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling pathway to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Based on these results, the anti-inflammatory effect of atraric acid during LPS-induced endotoxin shock in a mouse model was confirmed. In the atraric acid treated-group, cytokine production was decreased in the peritoneum and serum, and each organ damaged by LPS-stimulation was recovered. These results indicate that atraric acid has an anti-inflammatory effect, which may be the underlying molecular mechanism involved in the inactivation of the ERK/NFκB signaling pathway, demonstrating its potential therapeutic value for treating inflammatory diseases.

Currently, new agri-tech has been developed and adapted for the cultivation of crops using smart farming technologies, e.g., plant factories and hydroponics. Kelp (Laminaria japonica), which has a high industrial value, was considered as an alternative to chemicals for its eco-friendly and sustainably wide use in crop cultivation. In this study, a fermented kelp (FK) was developed for use in hydroponics. The FK contained various free and protein-bound amino acid compositions produced by fermenting the kelp with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Supplementing FK as an aeroponic medium when cultivating ginseng sprouts (GSs) elevated the total phenolic and flavonoid contents. Additionally, seven ginsenosides (Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rg2, Rb2, and Rd) in GSs cultivated with FK in a smart-farm system were identified and quantified by a high-performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detector/mass spectrometry analysis. Administering FK significantly increased the ginsenosides in the GSs compared to the control group, which was cultivated with tap water. These results indicate the FK administration contributed to the increased accumulation of ginsenosides in the GSs. Overall, this study suggests that FK, which contains abundant nutrients for plant growth, can be used as a novel nutrient solution to enhance the ginsenoside content in GSs during hydroponic cultivation.

Panax ginseng sprouts (GSs) have attracted attention as functional resources due to their short cultivation time and enriched ginsenoside content. This study aimed to evaluate the bioactivities of GSs cultivated using kelp fermentates (KF) as a nutrient solution under a smart-farming system. Ginsenoside-enriched extract (FGE), its water-soluble saponin fraction (WFGE), and 70% ethanol-soluble saponin fraction (EFGE) were analyzed for phytochemical contents and biological activities. The EFGE exhibited the highest levels of eight major ginsenosides, including Rg1, Rb1, Rc, Rg2, Rb2, Rd, Rf, and F2. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were significantly higher in KF-treated ginseng and their crude saponin fractions, with EFGE showing the highest values. WFGE and EFGE indicated strong antioxidant activity through ABTS radical scavenging assays. In LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, all extracts significantly inhibited nitric oxide production and downregulated IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 expression. Moreover, UVB-irradiated human fibroblasts (Hs68) treated with KF-derived fractions showed increased cell viability, enhanced procollagen synthesis, and reduced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression. These effects were associated with suppression of MAPK/AP-1 signaling. In conclusion, GSs cultivated with KF exhibit notable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-photoaging activities, suggesting their potential as natural ingredients for skin health applications.

Apoptosis induction in tumor cells is a fundamental therapeutic approach in cancer treatment, with growing interest in plant-derived compounds that offer potent efficacy and reduced toxicity. Cephalotaxus harringtonia, traditionally used in East Asian medicine, contains several bioactive constituents, including homoharringtonine (HHT) and quercetin 3-β-D-glucoside (Q3G), which are known for their anticancer properties. This study investigated the anticancer effects of C. harringtonia leaf extract (CHLE) and its two major compounds, quercetin 3-β-D-glucoside (Q3G) and HHT, against human liver cancer cell lines (HepG2). CHLE exhibited selective cytotoxicity and apoptosis specifically in HepG2 cells while showing minimal toxicity toward normal kidney cells (HK-2). Mechanistic analyses revealed that CHLE induced apoptosis through a mitochondria-mediated intrinsic pathway, characterized by increased reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, and BAX upregulation. These findings demonstrate that C. harringtonia leaf extract possesses potent, selective anticancer activity and may serve as a promising natural candidate for the prevention and therapeutic management of liver cancer.

Oxidative stress contributes to hair follicle degeneration by inducing inflammation and apoptosis in dermal papilla cells. This study investigated whether Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation enhances the anti-hair loss potential of Laminaria japonica (kelp) by-products by improving their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective activities. Fermentation significantly increased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity of kelp. In H₂O₂-stimulated human hair follicle dermal papilla cells, fermented kelp culture (KF) dose-dependently protected against oxidative-stress-induced cytotoxicity, reduced IL-6 and IL-8 secretion, inhibited NFκB phosphorylation, restored insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) expression, enhanced AKT phosphorylation, reduced Bax expression, and restored total caspase-3 expression. These findings indicate that KF attenuates oxidative-stress-induced inflammation and apoptosis while preserving dermal papilla cell function. A four-week application study further showed that a shampoo containing KF reduced hair loss and improved hair gloss, scalp sebum, and scalp scaling. Together, these findings suggest that S. cerevisiae fermentation enhances the biological activity of kelp by-products and supports the potential of KF as a functional cosmetic ingredient for anti-hair loss applications.