The high production of plastic, along with its biostability and poorly managed recycling, has led to its widespread presence in the environment. Pollution from microplastics (particles smaller than 5 mm) and nanoplastics (particles smaller than 1 μm) poses a serious environmental problem, with long-term negative impacts on human and animal health. The goal of this systematic review is to identify the toxicokinetics of microplastics and nanoplastics after they are ingested by mammals. A total of 1057 articles were identified in the PubMed database, Web of Science, and Google Scholar through a manual search. After removing duplicates, 560 articles remained. Upon reviewing the titles and abstracts, 500 articles were excluded. Out of the remaining 60 articles, 43 were excluded, and 17 were included in the study. The current clinical evidence indicates that plastics can enter the body in the form of microplastics and nanoplastics. The digestive system is a significant pathway for absorption, and the resulting changes are influenced by factors such as the type of plastic, the duration of exposure, the particle size, and the individual’s clinical condition. Once absorbed, plastic particles can enter the body and cause significant changes in intestinal barrier function, hepatic metabolic changes, oxidative stress, and nephrotoxicity.

Microplastic pollution has become a critical environmental issue, affecting terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. These pollutants, originating from plastic degradation and primary sources, can act as carriers for harmful substances such as heavy metals and organic contaminants. While mitigation efforts are still in development, biological systems, particularly Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL), have shown promise in organic waste management and pollutant bioaccumulation. Recent research explores the potential of BSFL to interact with and degrade microplastic particles, although the mechanisms remain underexplored. The role of microbial communities in facilitating microplastic degradation is of growing interest, as well as the impact of microplastic ingestion on the larvae’s efficiency in organic waste breakdown. However, experimental inconsistencies and environmental variations continue to delay progress, underscoring the need for further study to optimize bioremediation strategies and assess long-term ecological effects. This systematic review aims to explore the interactions between microplastics and BSFL, focusing on their potential as a bioremediation agent. It investigates the larvae’s ability to reduce microplastic pollution through bioaccumulation and degradation processes.

Nanoplastics (NPs) are synthetic polymer particles ranging in size from 1 nm to 1 μm that have been identified as a major concern for ecosystems and organisms due to their plethora of negative effects. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the knowledge relating to exposure and effects of NPs in domestic (i.e., farm and companion animals) and wild animals, a topic that is to date, still in its infancy. The exposure routes for these animals are several; from contaminated food and water, inhalation, dermal contact as well as through grooming, and specifically for pets, release from toys/training devices, alongside with the chronic inhalation by living in the same environment as their human owners. Regarding the toxicity, several studies highlighted that in farm animals, NPs can disrupt gut microbiota and intestinal permeability, as well as cause reproductive and neurotoxic effects. Moreover, given the role of farm animals in the food chain sector, the potential accumulation of NPs and their associated chemicals in animal tissues poses a significant threat to food safety. Aquatic and terrestrial wildlife (both invertebrates and vertebrates) experience a broad spectrum of negative effects including oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, immune response deficits, as well as reproductive and behavioral alteration, while up to now no information is available regarding the negative effect on pets. Although the analysis of the current literature demonstrates the undeniable threat posed by NPs, the existing technical limitations in detection indicate that significant knowledge gaps remain. Methodological and technological advancements are therefore necessary to more accurately assess and elucidate the risks NPs pose to these organisms.