Exploring the spatiotemporal evolution of urban and rural settlements in African countries could provide critical insights into the patterns of urbanization, regional disparities, and sustainable development in the context of rapid socio-economic and demographic changes. Using global human settlement data alongside multi-source socio-economic and environmental datasets, this study investigates the spatiotemporal dynamics of human settlements in Tanzania from 1975 to 2020. A combination of methods, including hotspot analysis, standard deviation ellipse analysis, and geographic detectors, is employed to examine the characteristics of settlement evolution and the underlying factors contributing to regional differentiation. The findings reveal that over the past 45 years, the expansion of urban centers and urban clusters in Tanzania has significantly accelerated, while rural areas have experienced a corresponding decline, reflecting a shift from low-density to high-density settlements and a transformation from rural to urban landscapes. Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, and Arusha have consistently been hotspots for urban center growth, while Kagera has emerged as a primary hotspot for urban clusters. The distribution of rural hotspots and coldspots generally mirrors that of urban clusters. The spatial distribution of urban centers, urban clusters, and rural areas follows a northwest–southeast orientation, with the spatial distribution of urban centers gradually stabilizing. However, the development gap between urban clusters in the northwest and rural areas in the southeast is widening and narrowing, respectively. Socio-economic factors exert a stronger influence on the development of settlements than natural environmental factors. Population density, GDP density, and road network density are significant drivers of settlement patterns, with their influence intensifying over time.

Understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics of croplands is crucial for guiding agricultural transformation, food security, and sustainable land use in Africa. This study employs 30 m resolution land cover data and multi-source datasets to examine the spatiotemporal changes in rainfed and irrigated cropland and their driving factors in Tanzania from 1990 to 2020 through multiple GIS spatial analysis methods. The results indicate a net increase in Tanzania’s total cropland area, primarily driven by the expansion of irrigated cropland that has offset the volatile decline of rainfed cropland. From 1990 to 2000, rainfed cropland showed intense bidirectional conversion with shrubland and forest; thereafter, the scale of this conversion continued to decrease. In contrast, irrigated cropland expansion exhibited phased fluctuations. Spatially, rainfed cropland dominates the central, lake, and western zones, while irrigated cropland is predominantly concentrated in the western and southern highland. Hotspots of rainfed cropland shifted from extensive expansion in the central and western zones during the 1990s to localized growth in mountainous areas by the 2010s. Concurrently, irrigated cropland hotspots evolved from a lakeside-concentrated pattern to contiguous development in the central and western zones. Both cropland types exhibit a northwest–southeast spatial orientation. The center of rainfed cropland shifted northwest before moving southeast, while that of irrigated cropland migrated southeastward and then stabilized. Rainfall is a key determinant of rainfed cropland distribution, whereas river network and road network density exert a growing influence on irrigated cropland.

As China’s urban–rural integrated development strategy advances, traditional urban–rural boundaries are undergoing rapid restructuring. However, it remains unclear whether these boundaries are becoming distinct through factor flow or blurring due to urban–rural functional coupling. To address this, this study examines the dynamic evolution of boundaries across three core dimensions—population, land, and function—to evaluate the efficacy of integration. We employ the Land Continuity Index, POI Diversity Index, and Gaussian Smoothing Index to characterize transitions in land use structure, spatial functional complexity, and population gradients, respectively. Additionally, a comprehensive Urban–Rural Fuzziness Index (URFI) is developed to quantify boundary blurring trends. Results indicate that Zhengzhou’s urban–rural boundaries exhibit a sustained weakening trend. Notably, changes in functional and population dimensions significantly outpace the land dimension, identifying functional urbanization and population mobility as the primary drivers of this blurring. Consequently, the URFI serves as a robust indicator of integration effectiveness. Overall, boundary blurring is not merely an external manifestation of urban expansion but a profound outcome of factor reorganization, spatial optimization, and the reshaping of urban–rural relationships. This study provides a novel quantitative tool for assessing policy effectiveness, offering both theoretical insights and practical implications for understanding urban–rural integrated development.

Exploring the spatiotemporal evolution of building stock in African countries is of great significance for understanding the urbanization process, regional development disparities, and sustainable development pathways in the Global South. Integrating long-term (1975–2020), 100 m resolution building stock data for Tanzania with multi-source environmental and socioeconomic datasets, this study employed GIS spatial analysis techniques—including optimized hotspot analysis, standard deviational ellipse, and geographical detector—to investigate the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of building differentiation. The results indicate that over the 45-year period, Tanzania’s building stock underwent rapid expansion, with a 3.83-fold increase in volume and a 4.93-fold increase in area, while the average height decreased continuously by 1.04 m. This growth was predominantly driven by the expansion of residential buildings. The spatial distribution of buildings exhibited a “north-dense, south-sparse” pattern with agglomeration along traffic axes. During 1975–1990, building growth hotspots were concentrated in western and southern regions, shifting to areas surrounding Lake Victoria and central administrative centers during 2005–2020. In contrast, coldspots expanded progressively from northern, northeastern regions and Zanzibar Island to parts of the southern and eastern coasts. The building distribution consistently maintained a northwest–southeast spatial orientation, with increasingly prominent directional characteristics; the centroid of building distribution moved more than 90 km northwestward, and the agglomeration intensity continued to increase. Socioeconomic factors—including population density, road network density, and GDP density—have a significantly stronger influence on building distribution than natural factors. Among natural factors, only river network density exhibits a significant effect, while constraints such as slope and terrain relief are relatively insignificant.