Lower respiratory tract infections remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among Intensive Care Unit patients, with severe cases often progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This life-threatening syndrome results from alveolar–capillary membrane injury, causing refractory hypoxemia and respiratory failure. Early detection and management are critical to treat the underlying cause, provide protective lung ventilation, and, eventually, improve patient outcomes. The 2012 Berlin definition standardized ARDS diagnosis but excluded patients on non-invasive ventilation (NIV) or high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) modalities, which are increasingly used, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. By excluding these patients, diagnostic delays can occur, risking the progression of lung injury despite ongoing support. Indeed, sustained, vigorous respiratory efforts under non-invasive modalities carry significant potential for patient self-inflicted lung injury (P-SILI), underscoring the need to broaden diagnostic criteria to encompass these increasingly common therapies. Recent proposals expand ARDS criteria to include NIV and HFNCs, lung ultrasound, and the SpO₂/FiO₂ ratio adaptations designed to improve diagnosis in resource-limited settings lacking arterial blood gases or advanced imaging. However, broader criteria risk overdiagnosis and create challenges in distinguishing ARDS from other causes of acute hypoxemic failure. Furthermore, inter-observer variability in imaging interpretation and inconsistencies in oxygenation assessment, particularly when relying on non-invasive measurements, may compromise diagnostic reliability. To overcome these limitations, a more nuanced diagnostic framework is needed—one that incorporates individualized therapeutic strategies, emphasizes lung-protective ventilation, and integrates advanced physiological or biomarker-based indicators like IL-6, IL-8, and IFN-γ, which are associated with worse outcomes. Such an approach has the potential to improve patient stratification, enable more targeted interventions, and ultimately support the design and conduct of more effective interventional studies.

Low respiratory tract infections remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among Intensive Care Unit patients, with severe cases often progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This life-threatening condition results from damage to the alveolar-capillary membrane, causing refractory hypoxemia and respiratory failure. Early detection and management are critical to treat the underlying cause, provide protective lung ventilation and, eventually, improve patients’ outcome. The Berlin definition, introduced in 2012, standardized ARDS diagnosis but excluded patients managed with non-invasive ventilation (NIV) or high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) modalities, which are increasingly used, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. This exclusion may delay diagnosis and treatment in patients who worsen despite non-invasive ventilatory support. Recent efforts aimed to broaden ARDS criteria by incorporating NIV and HFNC use, alongside alternative diagnostic tools like lung ultrasound and the SpO₂/FiO₂ ratio. These proposed modifications attempted to enhance the diagnosis of ARDS in resource-limited settings where access to arterial blood gas analysis or advanced imaging modalities may be restricted, thereby increasing the global applicability of ARDS classification. However, broadening the diagnostic criteria introduces several challenges, including the risk of overdiagnosis and the difficulty in differentiating ARDS from other causes of acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Furthermore, inter-observer variability in imaging interpretation and inconsistencies in oxygenation assessment, particularly when relying on non-invasive measurements, may compromise diagnostic reliability. To address these limitations, a more nuanced diagnostic framework is needed, one that incorporates individualized therapeutic strategies, emphasizes lung-protective ventilation, and integrates advanced physiological or biomarker-based indicators. Such an approach has the potential to improve patient stratification, enable more targeted interventions, and ultimately enhance conduction of interventional trials.

Background and objectives: In older and frail patients, in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) is associated with high mortality. Early warning scores such as the National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS2) are widely used to detect clinical deterioration, but their predictive accuracy in frail populations remains uncertain. This study aimed to assess whether integrating frailty measures with NEWS2 could better describe elderly IHCA patients. Materials and Methods: We conducted a single-center, retrospective observational study in adult and frail patients (≥18 years) admitted to medical and surgical wards of the University Hospital of Siena who experienced IHCA between January 2022 and January 2024. Data on demographics, such as last NEWS2 before IHCA, Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS), Barthel Index (BI), and Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) were retrospectively collected and analyzed. Patients were stratified into three categories, according to NEWS2: Stable (A), Potentially Unstable or Unstable (B), and Critical (C). Results: Seventy patients were analyzed (mean age 76.9 ± 11.0 years; 56% male). The mean pre-IHCA NEWS2 score was 6.0 ± 3.5, with 41% of patients classified as NEWS2-C, 48% classified as NEWS2-B, and 11% classified as NEWS2-A. The NEWS2-A category showed higher BI and lower CFS than NEWS2-B and NEWS2-C (p < 0.01), while CCI and age did not significantly differ. Conclusions: The association of NEWS2 with frailty scores could identify some elderly patients with limited pre-arrest physiological derangements but high frailty who suffered from IHCA. These findings provide descriptive insights that may inform monitoring strategies for “at-risk” elderly patients to help prevent IHCA.

BACKGROUND: In old and frail patients, in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) is associated with high mortality. Early warning scores such as the National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS2) are widely used to detect clinical deterioration, but their predictive accuracy in frail populations remains uncertain. This study aimed to assess whether integrating frailty measures with NEWS2 could better describe elderly IHCA patients. METHODS: We conducted a single-center, retrospective observational study in adult and frail patients (≥18 years) admitted to medical and surgical wards of the University Hospital of Siena who experienced IHCA between January 2022 and January 2024. Data on de-mographics, last NEWS2 before IHCA, Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS), Barthel Index (BI) and Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), were retrospectively collected and analyzed. Patients were stratified into three categories according to NEWS2: Stable (A), Potentially Unstable or Unstable (B) and Critical (C). RESULTS: Seventy patients were analyzed (mean age 76.9 ± 11.0 years; 56% male). The mean pre-IHCA NEWS2 score was 6.0 ± 3.5, with 41% of patients classified as NEWS2-C, 48% classified as NEWS2-B and 11% classified as NEWS2-A. The NEWS2-A category showed higher BI and lower CFS than NEWS2-B and NEWS2-C (p < 0.01), while CCI and age did not significantly differ. CONCLUSIONS: The association of NEWS2 with frailty scores identified some elderly patients with limited pre-arrest physiological derangements but high frailty who suffered from IHCA. These findings might influence the monitoring approach to “at risk” elderly patients to prevent IHCA.