This literature review investigated the efficacy of both unmodified and modified biochars as an adsorbent for phosphorus (P) capture from waste streams. The review focused on critical design aspects including the maximum phosphate removal adsorption capacities, influence of pH, coexisting ions, and pyrolytic conditions on P adsorption. The adsorption mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions, ion exchange, and complexation, were elucidated to provide insights into the underlying processes. The review revealed that the maximum phosphate removal adsorption capacity was influenced by factors such as the biochar type, surface properties, pyrolytic conditions, and presence of hydroxyl (–OH), carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups. The pH of the solution was identified as a crucial parameter affecting the efficiency of phosphate adsorption. Coexisting ions, notably carbonate anions, exhibited negative impacts on the phosphate removal process. Furthermore, this review discusses the characterization techniques used to assess biochar properties and adsorption mechanisms. Challenges related to biochar scalability, regeneration, stability, and metal leaching are addressed. Moreover, this review explored agricultural applications of P-laden biochar and found P-enriched biochar holds promise as a slow-release fertilizer for soil enrichment. This review highlights the role of biochar in promoting sustainable P management by integrating its application in wastewater treatment and agricultural reuse.

Precision agriculture increasingly relies on real-time data from soil sensors to optimize irrigation and nutrient application. Soil moisture and electrical conductivity (EC) are key indicators in irrigation and fertigation systems, directly affecting water-use efficiency and nutrient delivery to crops. This study evaluates the performance of an IoT-based soil-monitoring system for real-time tracking of EC and soil moisture under varied fertigation conditions in both laboratory and field scenarios. The EC sensor showed strong agreement with laboratory YSI measurements (R² = 0.999), confirming its accuracy. Column experiments were conducted in three soil types (sand, sandy loam, and loamy sand) to assess the EC and soil moisture response to fertigation. Sand showed rapid infiltration and low retention, with EC peaking at 420 µS/cm and moisture 0.33 cm³/cm³, indicating high leaching risk. Sandy loam retained the most moisture (0.35 cm³/cm³) and showed the highest EC (550 µS/cm), while loamy sand exhibited intermediate behavior. Fertilizer-specific responses showed higher EC in Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN)-treated soils, while Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) showed lower, more stable EC due to limited phosphorus mobility. Field validation confirmed that the IoT system effectively captured irrigation and fertigation events through synchronized EC and moisture peaks. These findings highlight the efficacy of IoT-based sensor networks for continuous, high-resolution soil monitoring and their potential to support precision fertigation strategies, enhancing nutrient-use efficiency while minimizing environmental losses.