Backgrounds: Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) combine the specificity of monoclonal antibodies with the cytotoxic potency of drugs, representing a significant class of targeted cancer therapeutics. Despite their clinical success, formulation-related instability, rather than biological inefficacy, is a major contributing factor to setbacks in ADC development. This review examines the biochemical, physicochemical, and formulation factors that contribute to ADC stability, with a focus on excipient selection, conjugation site heterogeneity, and linker–payload reactivity. Methods: This comprehensive review was based on a selection of peer-reviewed mechanistic, analytical, and manufacturability studies on ADC stability. Our goal was to highlight formulation strategies, degradation pathways, and solid-state stabilization principles that affect the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy of ADC. Results: Results demonstrate how formulation variability including buffer composition, excipient choice, ionic strength, and lyophilization can directly affect payload release, linker cleavage, kinetics, and antibody conformation. It has been demonstrated that techniques, such as lyophilization with glass-forming matrices and the addition of surfactants, enhance stability against hydrolysis, oxidation, and aggregation. Developments in analytical characterization, such as real-time kinetic modeling and multi-attribute techniques based on mass spectrometry, have made quantification of degradation and bioactivity losses more predictable in ADC formulations. The connection between chemical stability and formulation outcomes is being redefined by new techniques, such as model-informed optimization and AI-driven design. Conclusions: ADC formulation is now a key component of molecular stability, clinical reliability, and regulatory compliance rather than a secondary consideration. By guaranteeing long-term stability, better pharmacokinetics, and improved therapeutic indices across next-generation designs, these approaches have the potential to revolutionize ADC development.

Breast cancer is a prevalent malignancy that can metastasize to distant organs if left untreated, leading to significant morbidity. While chemotherapy is commonly used, it has drawbacks like low tissue availability, short circulation time, and toxicity to healthy cells. The objective of this study was to develop and characterize three different nanovesicles loaded with doxorubicin hydrochloride and paclitaxel, hypothesizing that this combination would enhance tumor targeting, reduce dosing and toxicity, and improve patient compliance. A validated UPLC method was developed for simultaneous detection and quantitation of both drugs, showing linearity over 3.13–50 µg/mL. Retention times were 1.53 and 4.06 min for doxorubicin hydrochloride and paclitaxel, respectively. Using thin-film hydration technique, blank and drug-loaded liposomes, transfersomes, and niosomes were formulated. Nanovesicles were characterized for size (150–250 nm), polydispersity index (0.14–0.20), and zeta potential (-0.56 to + 0.54 mV). Drug loading was 2.0–2.5% for doxorubicin hydrochloride and 7.0–7.5% for paclitaxel, with high encapsulation efficiency. Drug release studies showed sustained release for up to 72 h. Nanovesicles remained stable for at least seven days at room temperature and 4⁰C. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis studies using MTT assay and flow cytometry on MDA-MB 231 breast cancer cells revealed that the drug-loaded nanovesicles exhibited potent cytotoxicity and induced apoptotic cell death more effectively than individual drug solutions. In conclusion, this study successfully developed three nanovesicular systems co-loaded with doxorubicin hydrochloride and paclitaxel, demonstrating their potential as effective drug delivery systems for breast cancer treatment. Graphical Abstract Created in BioRender. Dang, L. (2025) https://BioRender.com/h14t77

Vision impairment affects approximately 2.2 billion people worldwide, with glaucoma, age-related macular degeneration, fungal keratitis, and diabetic retinopathy among the leading causes of preventable blindness. Effective pharmacotherapy remains severely constrained by the eye’s multilayered barrier architecture. Tear film, the corneal epithelium, the blood–aqueous barrier, and the blood–retinal barrier collectively restrict conventional topical drug bioavailability to less than 5% of the administered dose. Liposomal drug delivery systems have emerged as a clinically translatable platform capable of overcoming these barriers through targeted surface modification. This review provides a brief introduction to ocular barriers to drug delivery and transport and critically examines numerous surface-modification strategies applied to liposomal carriers to enhance corneal permeation and ocular bioavailability of drugs. It highlights the advantages and disadvantages of each modification strategy, as well as the convergent mechanism of liposomal surface modification in overcoming ocular barriers, and provides a comparative analysis of different surface-modification strategies of liposomes in terms of safety, efficacy and corneal retention. Additionally, it describes challenges associated with liposomal ophthalmic formulations in industrial scaling up. The review also sheds light on some FDA-approved liposomal ophthalmic products, active clinical trials on liposomal formulations, and relevant patents, demonstrating the potential benefits of liposomal drug delivery in the treatment of ocular disorders.