Public safety personnel (PSP; e.g., correctional workers, firefighters, paramedics, and police officers) are frequently exposed to potentially psychologically traumatic events (PPTEs) and report posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) difficulties more frequently than the general population. The PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) is a commonly used measure to screen PSP for PTSD. A single previous study assessed PCL-5 factorial invariance among PSP but used a small homogenous sample. The current study evaluated factorial invariance with a large (n = 5,855) and diverse PSP sample. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses (mCFAs; n = 98) were conducted using six competing factor models of the PCL-5 across seven PSP sectors, five age groups, and two gender groups. The seven-factor hybrid model of PTSD (i.e., reexperiencing, avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood, hyperarousal, intrusion, emotional numbing, dysphoria, dysphoric arousal, anxious arousal, anhedonia, negative affect) produced consistently superior fit across all sectors assessed and produced marginally better absolute values than the six-factor anhedonia model, supporting PCL-5 factorial invariance among PSP. The current study is the first to use a large and diverse PSP sample to assess PCL-5 factorial invariance. The results support the PCL-5 as invariant across PSP sectors, age groups, and men and women. Consistent with other studies, the seven-factor hybrid model of PTSD produced the best fit, followed closely by the six-factor anhedonia model. Future research could use structured clinical interviews to further investigate the factorial structure and invariance of PTSD symptoms among PSPs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Public safety personnel (PSP) frequently screen positive for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) based on the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Approximately 30% of Canadian paramedics who might otherwise screen positively for PTSD using the PCL-5 may not because avoidance items are not endorsed, arguably as a function of their service requirements (e.g., necessity of revisiting trauma scenes). Studies suggesting such limitations used only paramedic participants, thus limiting generalizability. The present study was designed to examine how PCL-5 avoidance items interact with positive PTSD screens using data from large samples of PSP (n = 5,813) and the general population (n = 2,631). Prevalence of positive PTSD screens was calculated for PSP sectors, the total PSP sample, and the general population. Differences in PTSD screening prevalences based on removing each of the four symptom cluster requirements were compared among and between PSP groups and the general population. Removing the avoidance criterion increased positive PTSD screens for the PSP sample (p = .03, V = .04); specifically, positive PTSD screens increased among correctional workers, firefighters, paramedics, and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (all ps < .05), but not municipal/provincial police and public safety communicators. Aligning with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition, text revision diagnostic criteria, removal of each cluster increased positive PTSD screens in the general population (ps < .01), suggesting PSP may be strictly limited by avoidance items due to service requirements. Results indicated ∼2% (∼100,000 PSP across Canada, the United States, and Australia) may be currently experiencing symptoms of PTSD, but not screening positively; thus PSP may benefit from PCL-5 revisions to better identify their avoidance behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the mental health of more citizens globally than any previous modern viral outbreak. In response to the psychological challenges associated with COVID-19, the COVID Stress Scales (CSS) were developed to assess the presence and severity of COVID-related distress. The initial North American validation study of the CSS identified that the scale comprised five factors: danger and contamination fears, fear of socioeconomic consequences, xenophobia, checking and reassurance seeking, and traumatic stress symptoms. The CSS have since been validated across a multitude of international populations. However, findings support a five- and six-factor model. Methodological issues make interpreting most studies supporting a five-factor model challenging. The purpose of this study was to re-evaluate the factor structure of the CSS using data from North American samples, to assess for potential factorial invariance, and compare these results to cross-cultural findings. Multiple confirmatory factor analyses (mCFA) were conducted across 28 different groups (e.g., age, ethnicity/race, sex) from two large independent North American samples from 2020 (n = 6827) and 2021 (n = 5787), assessing the fit indices of the five-, six-, and alternative-factor model of the CSS. The current results provide evidence for factorial invariance of the six-factor model of the CSS across different North American demographics and highlight potential challenges in interpreting the results of studies that have supported a five-factor model of the CSS.