We evaluated the clinical applications of artificial intelligence models in diagnosing corneal diseases, highlighting their performance metrics and clinical potential. A systematic search was conducted for several disease categories: keratoconus (KC), Fuch’s endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD), infectious keratitis (IK), corneal neuropathy, dry eye disease (DED), and conjunctival diseases. Metrics such as sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and area under the curve (AUC) were extracted. Across the diseases, convolutional neural networks and other deep learning models frequently achieved or exceeded established diagnostic benchmarks (AUC > 0.90; sensitivity/specificity > 0.85–0.90), with a particularly strong performance for KC and FECD when trained on consistent imaging modalities such as anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT). Models for IK and conjunctival diseases showed promise but faced challenges in heterogeneous image quality and limited objective training criteria. DED and tear film models benefited from multimodal data yet lacked direct comparisons with expert clinicians. Despite high diagnostic precision, challenges from heterogeneous data, a lack of standardization in disease definitions, imaging acquisition, and model training remain. The broad implementation of artificial intelligence must address these limitations to improve eye care equity.

This narrative review explored the comprehensive clinical applications of anterior segment optical coherence tomography in cases of ocular trauma and emergencies, with a focus on its diagnostic, therapeutic, and future implications. A literature search was conducted via PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science using relevant keywords, yielding 86 articles for inclusion. However, no formal systemic review or meta-analysis was performed. These studies highlight the role of anterior segment optical coherence tomography as a high-resolution, noncontact imaging modality that enables detailed assessment of anterior segment injuries, even in cases with compromised visualization due to corneal opacity or hyphema. Anterior segment optical coherence tomography facilitates accurate diagnosis of corneal lacerations, intraocular foreign bodies, traumatic cataracts, and angle abnormalities, contributing significantly to surgical planning. Moreover, anterior segment optical coherence tomography angiography provides novel insights into anterior segment vasculature; for instance, it helps detect limbal ischemia in chemical injuries. Despite its numerous benefits, anterior segment optical coherence tomography is limited by its inability to image structures posterior to the iris and its reliance on patient cooperation for accurate imaging. Overall, anterior segment optical coherence tomography has transformed the evaluation and management of ocular emergencies by enhancing structural visualization and improving clinical decision-making. Future innovations, including enhanced penetration depth and integration of artificial intelligence, are expected to further expand its diagnostic and therapeutic potential.

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are three-dimensional (3D) environments designed to mimic the real world. They have shown significant applications in science, especially in medicine. Their use spans various areas, including education, surgical training, patient education, and medical instruction. In ophthalmology, which is considered a field of microsurgery, VR and AR provide a 3D environment for practicing precise procedures. The ability to repeat exercises, independence from real patients, and tactile feedback allow residents to practice numerous times in a risk-free setting. Learning in a 3D environment is not limited to surgical techniques but it also supports learning theoretical concepts and practicing patient history-taking, reducing dependence on traditional professional training. This approach allows students in low socioeconomic countries to access high-quality training platforms. Beyond medical education, VR and AR can also be used to educate patients in a simple and accessible way, helping them understand their pathophysiology. Raising awareness about signs and symptoms is an effective method to prevent the progression of eye conditions. In this narrative review, we discuss the applications of VR and AR in ophthalmology, their benefits, and future directions.

Vitamin A deficiency is an uncommon but serious complication of malabsorptive bariatric surgery in developed nations, which can manifest several years after the procedure. It can easily be overlooked, as patients often present with nonspecific signs and symptoms early in the disease course, and ocular manifestations typically appear once the deficiency reaches a severe stage. A female patient in her early 40s presented with acute vision loss 8 years after undergoing biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch bariatric surgery. Ophthalmic examination revealed Bitot’s spots and progressive keratomalacia. Laboratory tests showed micronutrient deficiencies of vitamins A, D, E, and K1, which were attributed to noncompliance with bariatric follow-up and vitamin supplementation. Treatment with high-dose intramuscular vitamin A and total parenteral nutrition resulted in significant visual recovery and resolution of keratomalacia at 2 months after hospital discharge. Therefore, this case highlights that vitamin A deficiency can manifest years after the procedure, particularly in patients with poor adherence to nutritional guidelines. Prompt recognition and aggressive multi-modal supplementation are necessary to reverse ocular pathology and prevent permanent vision loss in this population.

Cataract surgery is one of the most common and effective surgeries performed worldwide, yet patient education remains a challenge due to limitations in health literacy among the general population. Our study evaluated the reliability of different large language models (LLMs) in providing accurate, complete, and clear responses to frequently asked questions (FAQs) related to cataract surgery. A comprehensive list of 20 FAQs about cataract surgery were submitted sequentially as a prompt to nine different LLMs. All 180 answers were recorded and scored by two expert ophthalmologists, blinded to the model type, on a 5-point scale measuring the degree of accuracy, completeness, and clarity. Interrater agreement was measured using a weighted kappa coefficient and model performances were compared using the Friedman test and post-hoc analysis. Our results showed all models performed well responding to FAQs (79% of responses scored “excellent”), serving as effective tools in answering patient FAQs. LLaMA 4 and Copilot scored lower on average relative to other models ( p < .05), however, they remained effective at FAQ responses overall. Potential expansion of LLMs as patient education tools into clinical settings should be considered, as they exhibit effectiveness in providing clear, accurate, and complete responses to cataract surgery FAQs.

Malignant glaucoma typically presents immediately after angle-closure surgery. However, late-onset malignant glaucoma can occur after various ocular procedures. This report describes the case of an African–American woman in her late 70s who developed malignant glaucoma 7 years after cataract surgery. She initially presented with signs of acute angle-closure glaucoma. Symptoms began a few days earlier with unilateral blurred vision and a dull orbital ache. The patient was initially managed with maximum aqueous humor suppressants. Imaging and ocular examination raised suspicion of malignant glaucoma, and a Soemmering’s ring was noted on examination. Laser peripheral iridotomy was attempted in the operating room; however, definitive treatment involving iridozonulohyaloidectomy with vitrectomy was necessary. Patient intraocular pressure, vision, and examination findings improved following intervention, showing continuous postoperative improvements. This case highlights Soemmering’s ring as a potential precipitant of malignant glaucoma as well as the effectiveness of iridozonulohyaloidectomy as a definitive treatment for pseudophakic malignant glaucoma.