Developing countries in particular are experiencing a tremendous rise in urbanization. Population growth and internal migration generated rapid urbanization and uncontrolled infrastructure construction in urban and semi urban area in Nepal. In general, local needs for infrastructure development, and construction of housing and apartments are typically used to select the most suitable site for residential use. Identification of the criterion is crucial to a suitability analysis based on local needs. Site suitability analysis is used for identification of the best location or site for residential area using geographic information system (GIS) based on multi-criteria evaluation (MCE). Majority of research work, spatial analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is a suitable tool and used in suitability analysis purpose. The criteria were determined through prior work and customized in the local situation interaction with land use planner as expert perspective and focus group discussions, and utilized in land suitability analysis. In this study, GIS-MCE-AHP models is applied as an effective approach of spatial decision making process and play efficient vital role for identifying the potential areas for residential use. In the suitability residential index map, suitable level of residential area is covered only 5% and 38% land covered with the moderate suitable for residential area in Sambhunath municipality. The suitable for residential area is mainly occurred along the major road network and surrounding to the existing settlement area. GIS conjunction with MCE and AHP is useful for conducting land suitability analysis and serving as planning tool for suitable residential site.

Climate change is a global issue. Its impacts are recognized at different scales ranging from global to regional to local. Climate change particularly changes in temperature and precipitation has been observed differently in different ecological regions in Nepal Himalaya. The study area comprises five villages of three ecological regions in the Gandaki River Basin (GRB) of Nepal. Based on the observed climate data of a 30-year period from 1990 to 2020, the changes in temperature and precipitation of each ecological region are analyzed using the Mann–Kendall trend test and Sen’s slope. The temperature trend was found to be increasing at the rate of 0.0254 °C per year (°C/a) between 1990 and 2020 in the Mountain region, by 0.0921 °C/a in the Hill region and 0.0042 °C/a in the Tarai region. The precipitation trend in the Mountain region is decreasing by −13.126 mm per year (mm/a), by −9.3998 mm/a in the Hill region and by −5.0247 mm/a in the Tarai region. Household questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were carried out to assess the perception of climate change and its impact. The farmers of the three ecological regions have perceived increasing temperature trends, but perceived variability in precipitation trends. Both snowfall and rainfall have varied. Snowfall has drastically decreased. Drought has increased. Extreme disaster events and impacts from such climate-induced events are experienced by 67.9% of respondents. A major impact of climate change is reported on cultivated crops with damage caused by increased insect and rodent pests. The impact of climate change is varied by ecological region. The comparative study of observed data and household data shows the need for a micro-level study so that a real situation can be captured and would be very much useful for policy formulation to combat climate change at a local scale.

Purpose: Various national and international policy instruments have been formulated to minimize vulnerability to climate risk at all scales, from the global to the local. However, gaps in adaptation and the adaptation process pose major impediments to the current climate change response in South Asia. This paper aims to examine climate change adaptation (CCA) policy implementation practices in Nepal, Bangladesh and India at the local level and identify adaptation gaps in the agriculture sector. Design/methodology/approach: The study uses primary and secondary data and triangulation methods following a qualitative approach. A household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interview, policy documents and extensive literature review were conducted to examine policy and adaptation gaps. Findings: The study found that, despite the provision limited access to finance, knowledge various financial instruments for CCA, smallholder farmers in India have very limited access. In contrast, farmers in Bangladesh have higher access to institutions, but their willingness to participate is low and the government’s delivery mechanism is poor. In Nepal, farmers face barriers to physical access and have limited financial instruments. Lack of sectoral integration, alignment on CCA targets and financing at the local level are major gaps on the policy front. Lack of understanding and awareness of CCA in a local sociocultural context among implementation authorities and weak institutional mechanisms are gaps at the institutional front. Reactive adaptation, such as increased use of chemical fertilizers and changing crop varieties without proper understanding, is a common adaptive action (inclining toward maladaptation) among farmers. Originality/value: This paper recommends that understanding the adaptation response during policy updates and the implementation process offers insights into future anticipation and responses for successful CCA policy implementation.

Urban spatial growth is shaped and directed by geo-environmental and socio-economic factors. Understanding the relationship between geo-environmental risks and urban spatial growth is essential for safe and sustainable urban development. In this context, this study investigates the urban growth in the geo-environmentally fragile area of Pokhara Metropolitan City, Nepal, using GIS and remote sensing tools. Urban spatial growth was determined using aerial photos from 1978, and multisource remote sensing data collected from 1990 to 2020. A geologically fragile zone was traced from the 1998 Geological Map of Pokhara Valley and sinkhole occurrences were documented during field visits. Results indicate that the built-up area has expanded more than four times, from 1.70 km2 in 1978 to 8.83 km2 with a growth rate of 1.87% to 8.74% in 2020. The Ghachok formation indicates a heavy concentration of urban development in this fragile area, increasing hazards like subsidence or sinkholes. This study emphasizes that increased population pressures are causing increased vulnerability in the geo-environmentally fragile Ghachok Formation area which comprises 25,713 built-up structures and over 93,000 populations. The necessity of integrating geo-environmental risk into developmental policies and strategies is emphasized to minimize the consequences on environmental sustainability. The results of the study enhance the understanding of the relationship between urban growth and geo-environmental risk areas to help in the formulation of an effective plan of conservation, development, and reduction of hazard risks in vulnerable highly populated zones.

Human activities and river course change have a complex reciprocal interaction. The river channel is altered by human activity, and these alterations have an impact on the activities and settlements along the riverbank. Understanding the relationship between urbanization and changes in river morphology is crucial for effective river management, safeguarding the urban environment, and mitigating flood hazards. In this context, this study has been conducted to investigate the interrelationship between morphological dynamics, built-up growth, and urban flood risk along the Manohara River in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The Sinuosity Index was used to analyze variation in river courses and instability from 1996 to 2023. Built-up change analysis is carried out using supervised maximum likelihood classification method and rate of change is calculated for built-up area growth (2003–2023) and building construction between 2003 and 2021. Flood hazard risk manning was carried out using flood frequency estimation method integrating HEC-GeoRAS modeling. Linear regression and spatial overlay analysis was carried out to examine the interrelationship between river morphology, urban growth, and fold hazed risk. In recent years (2016–2023), the Manohara River has straightened, particularly after 2011. Before 2011, it had significant meandering with pronounced curves and bends, indicating a mature river system. However, the SI value of 1.45 in 2023 and 1.80 in 2003 indicates a significant straightening of high meandering over 20 years. A flood hazard modeling carried out within the active floodplain of the Manohara River shows that 26.4% of the area is under high flood risk and 21% is under moderate risk. Similarly, over 10 years from 2006 to 2016, the rate of built-up change was found to be 9.11, while it was 7.9 between 2011 and 2021. The calculated R² value of 0.7918 at a significance level of 0.05 (with a p value of 0.0175, and a standard error value of 0.07877) indicates a strong positive relationship between decreasing sinuosity and increasing built-up, which demonstrates the effect of built-up expansion on river morphology, particularly the anthropogenic activities of encroachment and haphazard constructions, mining, dumping wastes, and squatter settlements along the active floodplain, causing instability on the river course and hence, lateral shift. The riverbank and active floodplain are not defined scientifically, which leads to the invasion of the river area. These activities, together with land use alteration in the floodplain, show an increased risk of flood hazards and other natural calamities. Therefore, sustainable protection measures must be prioritized in the active floodplain and flood risk areas, taking into account upstream–downstream linkages and chain effects caused by interaction between natural and adverse anthropogenic activities.