(1) Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major global health issue, ranking among the most frequently diagnosed cancers and one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality. (2) Methods: To identify studies that focus on nanotechnology-mediated treatment and early diagnosis in hepatocellular carcinoma, our group conducted a thorough literature search across major scientific databases. (3) Results: In this narrative review, we demonstrated that nanotechnology—particularly the use of nanoparticles—holds significant potential for both the treatment and early detection of hepatocellular carcinoma. Nanoparticles act as carriers for the targeted delivery of drugs to cancer cells, greatly enhancing treatment efficacy while minimizing adverse effects on healthy tissues. Due to their physicochemical properties, these nanoparticles can also carry contrast agents, enabling precise identification of tumor cells and contributing to the early diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. (4) Conclusions: While significant progress has been made, challenges such as toxicity, cost, and regulatory hurdles remain.

Background and aim. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) offer promising potential as nanocarriers in vaccine development due to their biocompatibility, tunable surface properties and capacity to enhance antigen presentation. This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro cytocompatibility, cellular uptake and antigen processing of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)-functionalized AuNPs as a nanovaccine candidate. Materials and Methods. AuNPs were synthesized by citrate reduction and subsequently functionalized with CEA through physical adsorption. Nanoparticle size, morphology, and surface charge were characterized using UV–Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cytocompatibility was assessed via MTT assay on RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Cellular uptake and antigen processing were evaluated using hyperspectral dark-field microscopy and fluorescence microscopy with proteasomal pathway markers. Results. The synthesized AuNPs displayed a uniform spherical morphology with a mean hydrodynamic diameter of ~50 nm and a stable zeta potential. CEA conjugation slightly altered the surface charge and spectral profile. MTT assays confirmed good cytocompatibility across tested concentrations. Hyperspectral and confocal microscopy revealed the efficient uptake of CEA-AuNPs by RAW 264.7 cells and colocalization with lysosomal compartments, suggesting successful antigen processing. Conclusions. The in vitro data support the safety and biological interaction of CEA-functionalized AuNPs with macrophages. These findings highlight their potential as a nanovaccine delivery platform and warrant further in vivo evaluation to assess immunogenicity and protective efficacy.

Background and aim. The efficacy of cancer vaccines depends on the development of safe and effective delivery systems that can improve antigen stability, facilitate targeted uptake by immune cells, and promote efficient intracellular processing. Gold nanopar-ticles offer an attractive platform due to their biocompatibility, stability, and modifiable surfaces. Functionalizing gold nanoparticles with tumor-associated antigens such as car-cinoembryonic antigen (CEA) peptides may enhance antigen presentation and stimulate immune activation. This study aimed to evaluate the cytocompatibility, cellular inter-nalization, and antigen-processing capabilities of CEA-functionalized gold nanoparticles (CEA-AuNPs) as a potential nanovaccine candidate in vitro. Materials and Methods. CEA peptides were conjugated to gold nanoparticles and characterized using UV-VIS spec-troscopy and dynamic light scattering to confirm functionalization and assess particle size distribution. In vitro assays were performed on macrophage cell cultures to evaluate cytotoxicity (via viability and caspase-3 expression), nanoparticle uptake (by reflectance microscopy), and antigen processing (via fluorescence intensity analysis). Results. Spectral analysis confirmed successful functionalization, with a broadened absorbance plateau between 510–700 nm and a size increase from 20 nm (bare AuNPs) to ~80 nm (CEA-AuNPs). Viability assays demonstrated cytologyc viability above 85% at all tested concentrations. Caspase-3 activity, suggested controlled apoptotic signaling in response to the nanoconstruct. Reflective imaging and fluorescence microscopy confirmed efficient cellular uptake, localized predominantly in the perinuclear region, and enhanced pro-teasomal activity in macrophages treated with the CCEA-AuNPs, indicating effective antigen processing. Discussion. Functionalization of gold nanoparticles with a CEA peptide resulted in stable, biocompatible nanostructures capable of efficient uptake by antigen-presenting cells. Enhanced intracellular processing, evidenced by increased ubiquitin-proteasome pathway activity, highlights the immunogenic potential of the construct. Low cytotoxicity supports its suitability for further preclinical development. Conclusion CEA-functionalized gold nanoparticles exhibit high cytocompatibility, tar-geted cellular uptake, and promote intracellular antigen processing—highlighting their promise as a nanovaccine platform in cancer immunotherapy. These results support further preclinical evaluation toward translational application.

Background and Aim: Colorectal cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, with growing interest in nanotechnology-driven immunotherapeutics. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) offer a promising platform due to their biocompatibility, functional versatility, and immunomodulatory potential. Carcinoembryonic antigens (CEAs), highly expressed in colorectal tumors, provide an ideal target for antigen-specific immune activation. The aim of this study is to evaluate the immunogenicity, biodistribution, and therapeutic efficacy of a CEA-functionalized gold nanoparticle (CEA-AuNP) construct in a mouse model of colorectal cancer following oral administration via a customized capsular delivery system. Methods: A 30-day oral administration study was performed in BALB/c mice (n = 30), who received increasing doses of CEA-AuNPs (5–50 mg/kg/day). Histological, hyperspectral imaging, and ELISA-based cytokine analyses were conducted to assess organ integrity, nanoparticle accumulation, and immune modulation. Results: CEA-AuNPs demonstrated a favorable safety profile and dose-dependent accumulation in reticuloendothelial tissues, particularly the spleen and liver. Cytokine profiling revealed enhanced IL-10 responses in the spleen, indicating anti-inflammatory immune modulation, with localized pro-inflammatory signals observed in hepatic tissue at higher doses. No signs of systemic toxicity or significant off-target effects were detected. Conclusions: The oral administration of CEA-AuNPs in healthy mice induced tissue-specific immune responses and exhibited a dose-dependent biodistribution pattern. These results support the further development of CEA-AuNPs as a nanovaccine platform for colorectal cancer immunoprophylaxis.

Background and aim: Colorectal cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, with growing interest in nanotechnology-driven immunotherapeutics. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) offer a promising platform due to their biocompatibility, functional versatility, and immunomodulatory potential. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), highly expressed in colorectal tumors, provides an ideal target for antigen-specific immune activation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunogenicity, biodistribution and therapeutic efficacy of a CEA-functionalised gold nanoparticle (CEA-AuNP) construct in a mouse model of colorectal cancer following oral administration via a customised capsular delivery system Methods: An in vivo study was conducted after a 30-day oral administration in BALB/c mice at escalating doses (5–50 mg/kg) of priorly validated in vitro CEA-functionalized gold nanoparticles (CEA-AuNPs). Histological, hyperspectral, and ELISA-based cytokine analyses were performed to assess tissue integrity, biodistribution, and immune responses. Results: CEA-AuNPs demonstrated high biocompatibility and effective macrophage internalization, inducing IL-10-dominant immune responses in the spleen and controlled pro-inflammatory cytokine shifts in the liver. Histological findings confirmed dose-dependent splenic and hepatic accumulation without systemic toxicity. Multifocal splenic amyloidosis and extramedullary hepatic hematopoiesis were noted at high doses, consistent with sustained immune activation. Conclusions: CEA-functionalized AuNPs represent a promising nanovaccine candidate for colorectal cancer prophylaxis. The construct induced tissue-specific immune responses, favoring cellular immunity and antigen processing without significant toxicity. These results support further investigation into CEA-AuNP nanoconstructs as oral immunotherapeutics in cancer prevention.