Diabetes mellitus (DM) poses a significant global health and economic challenge. Effective diabetes management requires a multifaceted approach that combines clinical and community-based interventions. Community-based interventions are critical to address the growing burden of diabetes. Despite numerous independent studies on community-based interventions for T2DM management and mathematical models, there has been no comprehensive review integrating these two domains. This systematic literature review aimed to fill this gap by examining mathematical modelling in the context of community-based interventions for T2DM management. Following the PRISMA guidelines, relevant articles were identified, screened, and assessed for eligibility using the Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed databases. The inclusion criterion was English-language research articles published between 2014 and 2024 that focused on T2DM interventions using mathematical models. Seven articles met the final inclusion criteria and were analysed to answer research questions related to the geographical origin of the data, nature of the intervention, specific mathematical model used, and the main findings of the primary study. This review highlights that mathematical models are critical for optimising community-based interventions, by identifying key risk factors, predicting disease progression, and evaluating the effectiveness of various treatments. By synthesising findings from different geographical and economic contexts, this review highlights the importance of culturally and contextually relevant strategies for diabetes management. The integration of robust mathematical models with community-based approaches promises to develop more effective evidence-based strategies for diabetes management, particularly in resource-limited settings.

Background: Muntingia calabura L. leaves are traditionally used in West Java to manage hyperglycemia, yet integrated evidence linking their chemical profile with bioactivity remains limited. Objectives: To profile secondary metabolites in M. calabura leaf extract (MCLE), evaluate antioxidat capacity, and perform an assessment of antihyperglycemic efficacy in a diabetic rat model. Methods: Muntingia calabura L. leaves extract was characterized by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–HRMS/MS). Antioxidant activity was measured using the ABTS•⁺ decolorization assay. Antihyperglycemic activity was evaluated in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats treated orally with MCLE (125 or 250 mg/kgBW) for 14 days. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), 2-hour postprandial glucose (2hPP), and body weight were analyzed using two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results: Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry annotated diverse secondary metabolites, with the most intense signals assigned to 5-hydroxy-6,7-dimethoxy-2-phenyl-4H-chromen-4-one (19.99%), isokaempferide (16.94%), and scrophulein (10.90%). Muntingia calabura L. leaves extract and its n-hexane and ethyl acetate fractions exhibited ABTS•⁺ radical scavenging activity. In STZ-induced rats, significant group × day interactions were observed for all outcomes (P < 0.001). The 250 mg/kgBW dose attenuated diabetes-associated weight loss and reduced FBG (P < 0.01), and 2hPP at this dose (134.0 ± 4.0 mg/dL) was not significantly different from the normal control or glibenclamide groups (P > 0.05). Conclusions: Muntingia calabura L. leaves extract demonstrated antihyperglycemic activity in STZ-induced diabetic rats, improving both FBG and 2hPP alongside measurable antioxidant capacity.

Muntingia calabura L. (Muntingiaceae) is a fast-growing tropical food–medicine species, whose edible fruits and traditionally used leaves, flowers, and bark contain diverse phenolic and flavonoid constituents and have been investigated for metabolic, inflammatory, and other pharmacological activities. Previous reviews have largely cataloged its traditional uses, phytochemistry, and reported bioactivities, but have not systematically examined the strength, quantitative potency, internal validity, and translational maturity of the evidence. This systematic review therefore evaluated the drug-development potential of M. calabura across four interconnected domains, namely ethnopharmacological use, in vitro and in silico pharmacology, preclinical in vivo and ex vivo evidence, and plant-mediated nanotechnology. PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect were searched for primary English-language studies published from January 2015 to December 2025 following PRISMA 2020. The review protocol was not prospectively registered in PROSPERO or any other registry. No meta-analysis was performed because of substantial methodological heterogeneity. Quantitative findings were summarized descriptively as medians and ranges, and mammalian studies were assessed using the SYRCLE risk-of-bias tool. Among 107 included studies, 2 were ethnobotanical surveys, 56 investigated in vitro or in silico pharmacology, 36 evaluated preclinical in vivo or ex vivo effects, and 13 examined plant-mediated nanotechnology. No eligible controlled human studies were identified. Carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzyme inhibition emerged as the most consistent pharmacological signal, with median IC₅₀ values of 50.72 μg/mL for α-glucosidase and 61.43 μg/mL for α-amylase, although potency varied markedly among plant parts, extraction systems, and assays. Preclinical studies reported glucose-lowering, lipid-modulatory, anti-inflammatory, and organ-protective effects, but methodological safeguards against bias were incompletely reported, extract standardization was inconsistent, and pharmacokinetic and long-term safety evidence was lacking. M. calabura should therefore be regarded as a source of pharmacological leads and biofunctional nanomaterials, rather than as a clinically validated treatment.