The present study aims to investigate the influence of structured physical activity (SPA) and unstructured physical activity (UPA) environments on the development of locomotor skills in primary school children. The sample consisted of 148 pupils (mean age = 8.7 ± 0.7 years; 77 girls and 71 boys) attending the third and fourth grades of a primary school located in a rural municipality in southern Italy. Motor skills were assessed by means of the locomotion subtest of the Test of Gross Motor Development – Third Edition (TGMD-3). The results show that 86.5 % of the participants (n = 128) engage in UPA during their leisure time. The mean scaled score for the entire sample was 8.23 points (± 2.68), with 64.2 % of the pupils falling within the “Average” level. Children who participate in SPA obtained significantly higher scores than their peers who do not practise structured activity: 8.64 (± 2.74) vs 7.73 (± 2.53) points; p = .038; Cohen’s d = 0.34. Multifactorial analysis confirmed a positive main effect of SPA but did not reveal significant interactions between SPA and UPA. Although the data confirm the influence of structured activity on locomotion test outcomes, the non-significance of UPA may be attributable to the characteristics of the subtest items, as these tasks are widespread in sporting practice. The findings highlight the role of rural contexts in promoting unstructured physical activity among school-age children and the contribution of structured physical activity to the development of motor skills. Future research should consider enlarging the sample, including the object-control subtest of the TGMD-3, and further exploring the qualitative relationships between SPA, UPA, and motor development.

Recent research suggests that variability enhances motor control, learning, and adaptation by improving the system's response to environmental demands. It also develops the cognitive and executive functions of athletes. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the variability of the split leap in rhythmic gymnastics, performed with and without ribbon handling, analysing in which of the two techniques there is greater variability. The sample consists of six competitive gymnasts with an average age of 15.1 years (±0.94). The acquisitions were carried out with the BTS Bioengineering integrated multifactorial optoelectronic system, using fifteen passive markers, six BTS Smart-DX cameras, two cameras for video support and seven BTS-6000 force platforms. The results show that the coefficient of variation (CV%) in trials performed with ribbon is higher than those without the apparatus. Cohen's Effect Size revealed a small effect size between trials with ribbon and those without. Despite being minimal, this difference emphasizes the presence of variability in jumps executed with ribbon in comparison to free body trials. In conclusion, this study explored both intrinsic (CV%) and extrinsic (task complexity, technical experience) factors of jump performance, highlighting the utility of gold standard motion analysis systems for researching executive variability in rhythmic gymnastics jumps.

Background: In recent years, the use of compression garments has expanded into sports contexts to enhance performance and optimize post-exercise recovery. One of the most investigated physiological variables for evaluating their effectiveness has been peripheral muscle oxygenation, a crucial indicator of physical performance. However, studies regarding the effects of compression on the upper limbs remain limited and the topic is insufficiently explored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of compression garments on muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) recovery in the biceps brachii after brief maximal isometric contractions. Specifically, physiological responses were compared between two conditions (with and without compression garments), hypothesizing that compression would promote faster and more efficient muscle reoxygenation compared to traditional clothing. Methods: Fourteen male participants (mean age: 24.4 years; mean height: 176.75 cm; mean body mass: 73 kg) performed three 10 s isometric contractions separated by 180 s passive recovery periods under compression (CG) and non-compression (noCG) conditions. SmO₂ was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), assessing Half-Recovery Time (HRT), Overshoot Amplitude, Initial Slope, and the time constant τ. Results: The compression garment significantly reduced HRT (CG 8.52 s vs. noCG 10.21 s; p = 0.035), significantly increased Overshoot Amplitude (CG 21.40% vs. noCG 7.92%; p = 0.0014), resulted in a greater Initial Slope (CG 2.43%/s vs. noCG 2.09%/s; p = 0.027), and significantly reduced the time constant τ (CG 11.68 s vs. noCG 21.04 s; p < 0.001). Conclusions: The use of compression garments demonstrated significant improvements in post-exercise muscle oxygen saturation, suggesting potential advantages for muscle recovery and positive implications for athletic performance.

The aim of the study is to compare, from an ecological-dynamic perspective, two run-up techniques (chassè and pre-jump) used to perform the split leap, aiming at improving performance in rhythmic gymnastics. The sample consists of six competitive gymnasts with an average age of 17.3 years (±1.9). The study used the integrated multifactorial optoelectronic system, consisting of six BTS Smart-DX video cameras, seven BTS-6000 force platforms, and fifteen passive markers. The results show that the jump performed with the chassè shows higher values in maximum amplitude (171.4° ± 16.5 vs. 167° ± 15.7) and maximum elevation (0.15m ± 0.03 vs. 0.14m ± 0.02) compared to the split leap performed with the pre-jump, even if, from the results obtained by the t-test, it emerged that this difference is not statistically significant (p > .05). Furthermore, the results of Cohen’s Effect Size show a small effect size. In conclusion, from the results obtained in this study, it could be hypothesized that, since there are no statistically significant differences between the two run-up techniques, both could be used to vary the practice since they don’t alter the jump performance. Variation in practice refers to the theoretical framework of the ecological-dynamic approach, which enriches the athlete's motor and technical skills.

Background/Objectives: In recent years, the use of compression garments has expanded into sports contexts to enhance performance and optimize post-exercise recovery. One of the most investigated physiological variables for evaluating their effectiveness has been peripheral muscle oxygenation, a crucial indicator of physical performance. However, studies regarding the effects of compression on the upper limbs remain limited and insufficiently explored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of compression garments on muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) recovery in the biceps brachii after brief maximal isometric contractions. Specifically, physiological responses were compared between two conditions (with and without compression garments), hypothesizing that compression would promote faster and more efficient muscle reoxygenation compared to traditional clothing. Methods: Fourteen male participants (mean age: 24.4 years; mean height: 176.75 cm; mean body mass: 73 kg) performed three 10-second isometric contractions separated by 180-second passive recovery periods under compression (CG) and non-compression (noCG) conditions. SmO₂ was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), assessing Half-Recovery Time (HRT), Overshoot Amplitude, Initial Slope, and the time constant τ. Results: The compression garment significantly reduced HRT (CG 8.52 s vs. noCG 10.21 s; p=0.035), significantly increased Overshoot Amplitude (CG 21.40% vs. noCG 7.92%; p=0.0014), resulted in a greater Initial Slope (CG 2.43 %/s vs. noCG 2.09 %/s; p=0.027), and significantly reduced the time constant τ (CG 11.68 s vs. noCG 21.04 s; p<0.001). Conclusions: The use of compression garments demonstrated significant improvements in post-exercise muscle oxygen saturation, suggesting potential advantages for muscle recovery and positive implications for athletic performance.

Serve return in tennis requires continuous integration between visual information and action regulation, a process that, according to ecological dynamics, emerges from the coupling between perception and action. The present pilot study explored gaze behaviour in competitive and recreational tennis players during serve return, considering fixation duration and count, spatial dispersion of gaze coordinates, and differences between the pre- and post-bounce phases. Four university students who play tennis (two competitive, two recreational) each completed 40 serve returns under representative conditions, wearing a Pupil Labs Neon eye-tracking system. Data were analysed at the block level and at the single-response level using descriptive statistics and mixed-effects models: competitive players showed on average longer fixations, a lower number of fixations, and less spatial dispersion of gaze; in both groups, fixation duration was greater in the pre-bounce phase than in the post-bounce phase; and competitive players descriptively achieved higher serve-return scores, with high-scoring serve returns showing greater overall fixation time. Given the exploratory nature of the study, these patterns suggest that the temporal and spatial organisation of gaze may help characterise the serve return, and point to the usefulness of representative protocols that preserve the functional rela-tionships between visual information and action.