The escalating challenge of resistance to insecticides among agricultural and public health pests poses a significant threat to global food security and vector-borne disease control. This review synthesizes current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning resistance, including well-characterized pathways such as target-site mutations affecting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, and metabolic detoxification mediated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs), esterases, and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). Emerging resistance mechanisms are also explored, including protein sequestration by odorant-binding proteins and post-transcriptional regulation via non-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Focused case studies on Aedes aegypti and Spodoptera frugiperda illustrate the complex interplay of genetic and biochemical adaptations driving resistance. In Ae. aegypti, voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSCs) mutations (V410L, V1016I, F1534C) combined with metabolic enzyme amplification confer resistance to pyrethroids, accompanied by notable fitness costs and ecological impacts on vector populations. In S. frugiperda, multiple resistance mechanisms, including overexpression of cytochrome P450 genes (e.g., CYP6AE43, CYP321A8), target-site mutations in ryanodine receptors (e.g., I4790K), and behavioral avoidance, have rapidly evolved across global populations, undermining the efficacy of diamide, organophosphate, and pyrethroid insecticides. The review further evaluates integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, emphasizing the role of biopesticides, biological control agents, including entomopathogenic fungi and parasitoids, and molecular diagnostics for resistance management. Taken together, this analysis underscores the urgent need for continuous molecular surveillance, the development of resistance-breaking technologies, and the implementation of sustainable, multifaceted interventions to safeguard the long-term efficacy of insecticides in both agricultural and public health contexts.

Melatonin is a conserved indolamine implicated in circadian and developmental timing, but its role in social-insect task allocation is unclear. Here, we show that melatonergic signaling modulates the nurse → forager transition in the honey bee (Apis mellifera). A single hemocoelic dose of melatonin (100 ng) markedly reduced hive retention and advanced the age at first waggle dance by ≈9 days (median 11.8 vs. 20.9 days; common-language effect size = 0.94). Complementary manipulations—pharmacological antagonism with luzindole and RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated knockdown of a candidate melatonin receptor (AmMTR/AmMT2; transcript reduction ≈65–79% at 24–72 h)—produced reciprocal suppression of foraging, indicating pathway dependence. Transcriptional profiling revealed a forager-age peak in the arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase ortholog AmNAT2 (≈10-fold increase near day 23), while AmNAT1 remained unchanged; melatonin treatment was associated with a trend toward increased Amα-glucosidase expression. Computational analyses classify AmMTR as a class-A GPCR and identify plausible melatonin-compatible pockets; promoter scans reveal high-confidence circadian motif matches upstream of AmMTR. These in silico results are presented as hypothesis-generating. Together, the behavioral, molecular, pharmacological and computational lines of evidence support melatonin as a circadian-informed modulatory signal that helps align neuroendocrine and metabolic states with the timing of extranidal behavior. Confirmation via receptor functional assays and broader colony replication will be important.

Plasmodiumcauses malaria, a global illness that significantly affects the liver and reduces protein and carbohydrate availability. Silver nanoparticles from Indigofera oblongifolialeaf extract (IOLEAgNPs) were tested for their impact on liver functioning, antioxidant levels, and protein and carbohydrate loss in mice infected with P. chabaudi. Divided fifty females C57BL/6 mice into five groups (10 mice): control, IOLE AgNPs, infected non-treated, infected with IOLE AgNPs, and CQ 10 mg/kg as a reference medication. Histopathological and immunohistochemical studies showed that IOLE AgNPs restored protein and carbohydrate availability and P. chabaudiinfection decreased liver size. The results show that IOLE AgNPs reduced liver oxidative damage. Treatment with IOLEAgNPs improved GGT and total protein. Therapy also raised liver alanine, aspartate, and alkaline phosphatase levels. IOLE AgNPs may be a new malaria treatment by reducing liver damage, protecting tissues, and restoring protein and carbohydrate levels.

(1) Background: Mosquitoes represent major vectors of human pathogens, and their control remains a global public health priority. However, the widespread use of synthetic insecticides has resulted in environmental contamination, adverse effects on non-target organisms, and the rapid emergence of insecticide resistance. These limitations have intensified the search for sustainable botanical alternatives. (2) Methods: The present study investigated the phytochemical composition and larvicidal efficacy of flower extracts from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and Oenothera biennis, alongside their nanoemulsion formulations, against the third-instar larvae of Culex pipiens. Larvicidal assays demonstrated that nanoemulsion formulations markedly enhanced bioactivity compared with conventional extracts. (3) Results: After 48 h of exposure, C. cinerariaefolium nanoemulsion exhibited the strongest toxicity (LC₅₀ = 26.63 ppm), followed by methanol (44.46 ppm), hexane (73.90 ppm), and aqueous extracts (209.99 ppm). Corresponding LC₅₀ values for O. biennis were 31.89, 80.15, 140.69, and 393.22 ppm, respectively. Biochemical analyses indicated that C. cinerariaefolium treatments strongly inhibited detoxification and digestive enzymes (esterases, GABA-T, amylase, and lipase) and suppressed antioxidant defenses (SOD, GST, CAT, and GSH). This was accompanied by a significant elevation of oxidative stress biomarkers, including lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. In contrast, O. biennis induced comparatively moderate biochemical responses. The phytochemical profiling utilizing GC-MS revealed the identification of forty-nine and fifty volatile components from the C. cinerariaefolium (CW-Hex) and O. biennis (BOF) n-hexane extracts, respectively, primarily consisting of oxygenated hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and their esters. Furthermore, UPLC-MS/MS-assisted profiling of methanol, ethyl acetate, and aqueous extracts identified thirty-eight metabolites for CW and thirty-one for BOF. The CW extracts were predominant in flavonoids and fatty acids while also containing cinnamic acid derivatives, phenolic acids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, pyrethrins, phenyl ethanoids, steroids, aurones, and tannins. BOF extracts were particularly rich in flavonoids, followed by fatty acids, cinnamic acid derivatives, tannins, and steroids. (4) Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that plant-derived formulations of C. cinerariaefolium, particularly in nanoemulsion form, exert potent larvicidal activity through the disruption of metabolic and antioxidant pathways, offering a promising eco-friendly strategy for vector control.