Sex hormones’ and menstrual cycle’s effects on cognitive performance remain unclear. This study examined cognitive differences between women across menstrual cycle phases, sex differences between women and men, and hormone–cognition associations. In total, 71 healthy young adults, aged 20–36 (42 women, 29 men), completed standardised cognitive tests measuring attention, processing speed, working memory, and visuospatial abilities. Women were tested twice: during menstrual (low-oestradiol) and pre-ovulatory (high-oestradiol) phases; men once. Hormone levels (oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone) were measured in blood samples via electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA). Two analytical strategies were used: (1) within-subject analysis comparing women between phases, and (2) between-group comparison across three groups—women in menstrual phase, pre-ovulatory phase, and men. Women performed better during pre-ovulatory versus menstrual phase in working memory (Digit span forward: p = 0.04; Digit span backwards max: p = 0.02) and attention switching (Trail Making Test B: p = 0.01). Sex differences in processing speed were observed only during the menstrual phase (Trail Making Test A: p = 0.03; Stroop B: p = 0.04), but not in the pre-ovulatory phase. Positive correlations between oestradiol/progesterone and cognitive performance were found in men, while complex bidirectional relationships emerged in women during the menstrual phase only. Testosterone showed no significant correlations. These findings highlight hormonal status effects on cognitive sex differences.

Background: Sex hormones modulate brain function, but their specific effects on neural oscillations remain incompletely understood. This study examined associations between sex hormone concentrations and resting-state EEG spectral power in healthy young adults, comparing women with high versus low estradiol levels assessed during pre-ovulatory and menstrual cycle phases respectively, alongside sex differences between women and men. Methods: We examined resting-state EEG spectral power in 57 healthy adults (26 men, 31 women) using verified hormone measurements. Women were assessed twice across menstrual cycle phases (menstrual and pre-ovulatory), while men were assessed once. Spectral power analysis was performed across seven EEG frequency bands. Statistical comparisons of EEG group differences employed a non-parametric cluster-based permutation framework, using paired and independent-samples Wilcoxon statistics depending on the nature of the comparison. Hormone–EEG associations were assessed separately within each sex: Spearman rank correlations for males and linear mixed-effects models for females, with FDR correction. Results: Sex differences in spectral power were more prominent than differences between the investigated cycle phases, with no significant differences observed between the two female groups. Group-level comparisons revealed widespread sex differences in high-frequency bands predominantly in frontal and central-left regions. Within the male group, no hormone–EEG associations survived FDR correction. Within-female analyses revealed focal associations of estradiol with posterior high gamma power, and of progesterone with theta and high beta power at temporo-frontal and parietal sites. Conclusions: Sex hormones relate to resting-state EEG oscillations through two distinct levels of influence: long-term organizational shaping of cortical architecture, reflected in widespread between-sex differences, and acute receptor-mediated modulation, reflected in focal within-female associations. These findings underscore the importance of considering both sex and hormonal status as fundamental biological variables in electrophysiological research.

Background: The increasing use of ionising radiation in medical diagnostics highlights the need for adequate education of future healthcare professionals in radiation protection. This study aimed to assess the level of radiation safety knowledge among healthcare students across different disciplines and years of study. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 1,161 students from three Polish medical universities, representing medicine, nursing, radiography, physiotherapy, and paramedic programmes. The questionnaire evaluated knowledge of radiation protection principles, identification of imaging modalities involving ionising radiation, and estimation of relative radiation doses. Results: The mean percentage of correct answers was 30.1% (SD = 13.9%), indicating generally low levels of knowledge. Fifth-year students achieved the highest scores (41.7%), while fourth-year students performed the worst (23.4%). Physiotherapy students obtained the highest mean scores (36.7%), whereas paramedic students scored the lowest (25.9%). Significant differences were observed between years of study and fields of study ( p < 0.001), although effect sizes were small. No significant differences were found between universities ( p = 0.063). Students performed best in identifying imaging modalities and worst in radiation dose estimation. Notably, 21% of respondents reported no interest in radiation protection. Conclusions: Healthcare students demonstrate insufficient knowledge of radiation protection, with only limited improvement across years of study. These findings highlight the need for structured, curriculum-integrated education to improve awareness and safe use of ionising radiation.