Venomous snakes constitute ecologically significant and medically relevant organisms due to the risks associated with their bites, which frequently result in secondary infections. The oral microbiota of these reptiles plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of such infections; however, its diversity and clinical implications remain insufficiently characterized. This is the first comprehensive review to systematically trace the methodological evolution in snake oral microbiota research, documenting the paradigm shift from traditional culture-dependent techniques to advanced culture-independent approaches, including next-generation sequencing and metagenomics. Our analysis uniquely demonstrates the transformative impact of these technological advances on bacterial diversity identification and antimicrobial resistance gene detection in venomous species. Environmental factors, captivity conditions, and venom composition significantly influence microbial community structure and resistance profiles. These intricate interactions are essential for improving clinical management of snakebite infections, informing empirical antibiotic therapy protocols, and guiding antivenom production strategies. Additionally, the potential of snake oral microbiota as a source of novel bioactive compounds represents an emerging area of bioprospecting research. This review uniquely bridges microbiology, venomics, and clinical medicine, demonstrating the necessity for integrative, multidisciplinary approaches to fully elucidate the ecological and biomedical significance of oral microbial communities in venomous snakes.

Background/Objectives: Arboviruses including dengue virus (DENV), Zika virus (ZIKV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV), yellow fever virus (YFV), and West Nile virus (WNV) co-circulate across the Americas, generating overlapping febrile syndromes that challenge etiological diagnosis based solely on clinical criteria. Cartridge-based multiplex molecular platforms offer potential for decentralized testing in hyperendemic settings, yet independent real-world evaluations of their clinical and analytical performance remain limited. Methods: A retrospective two-phase analytical study was conducted. Phase 1 assessed clinical diagnostic accuracy for dengue using 163 de-identified serum samples classified using a composite reference standard consisting of Panbio NS1 ELISA reactivity (≥11 Panbio units) combined with compatible clinical and epidemiological data, operationalized in accordance with the PAHO 2023 laboratory confirmation algorithm for dengue; RT-qPCR was not routinely available for all archived samples, and reported sensitivity should therefore be interpreted as a conservative lower-bound estimate; Phase 2 evaluated analytical sensitivity across all eight panel targets using characterized arboviral reference strains in serial dilution experiments, with reference RT-qPCR assays as the comparator; this phase was incorporated to characterize detection thresholds for targets not represented by clinical specimens. Results: In Phase 1, the M10 demonstrated sensitivity of 96.0% (96/100), specificity of 100% (63/63), overall accuracy of 97.5%, and near-perfect agreement with the reference standard (Cohen’s κ = 0.95). DENV-3 was the predominant serotype (74/96; 77.1%), followed by DENV-1 (16.7%) and DENV-4 (6.3%); DENV-2 was not detected. In Phase 2, operational LoDs (defined as the lowest concentration yielding a detectable Ct in all triplicate reactions for the RT-qPCR, and from a single cartridge per dilution point for the STANDARD M10) were equivalent or superior to reference RT-qPCR for six targets (DENV-1, DENV-3, DENV-4, ZIKV, WNV, YFV; range 1–5 PFU/mL), while DENV-2 and CHIKV showed 20-fold higher operational LoDs (20 PFU/mL vs. 1 PFU/mL for the reference RT-qPCR); formal LoD₉₅ estimates were not determined. Conclusions: The STANDARD M10 Arbovirus Panel shows high clinical accuracy for dengue and adequate analytical sensitivity for most targets, supporting its use as a complementary decentralized molecular tool. Reduced sensitivity for DENV-2 and CHIKV and the absence of formal LoD₉₅ estimates remain key limitations to be addressed in future validation studies.

Venomous snakes constitute ecologically significant and medically relevant organisms due to the risks associated with their bites, which frequently result in complex secondary infections. The oral microbiota of these reptiles plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of such infections; however, its diversity and clinical implications remain insufficiently characterized. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the oral microbiota of snakes, tracing the methodological evolution from traditional culture-dependent techniques to advanced culture-independent approaches, including next-generation sequencing and metagenomics. The analysis highlights the transformative impact of these technologies on bacterial diversity identification and antimicrobial resistance gene detection. Environmental factors, captivity conditions, and venom composition significantly influence microbial community structure and resistance profiles. These complex interactions are essential for improving clinical management of snakebite infections, informing empirical antibiotic therapy protocols, and guiding antivenom production strategies. Additionally, the potential of snake oral microbiota as a source of novel bioactive compounds represents an emerging area of bioprospecting research. This review demonstrates the necessity for integrative, multidisciplinary approaches to fully elucidate the ecological and biomedical significance of oral microbial communities in venomous snakes.

Venomous snake bites are a global public health issue, causing between 81000 and 138000 annual deaths and 400000 permanent disabilities. This study investigated the oral bacterial diversity and antibiotic resistance profiles in captive Viperidae snakes. Oral swabs from 48 specimens across four species (Porthidium lansbergii, Bothriechis nigroviridis, Cerrophidion sasai, and Bothrops asper) were analyzed using culture-dependent methods. Bacterial isolation and identification using the VITEK 2 automated system revealed 41 strains from 12 genera, predominantly Gram-negative bacteria, including Morganella morganii (11 isolates) and Providencia rettgeri (10 isolates). Antibiotic susceptibility testing demonstrated significant resistance patterns, with 100% resistance to cephalothin and cefazolin in M. morganii, and emerging extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production in Enterobacter cloacae and Sphingomonas paucimobilis. The comparative analysis showed that P. lansbergii exhibited the highest bacterial diversity. These findings highlight the complex oral microbiota of venomous snakes and underscore the need for evidence-based antibiotic strategies in snakebite management, particularly given the global rise in antimicrobial resistance.

La microbiota humana constituye uno de los sistemas biológicos más complejos e influyentes en la salud del hospedero. Su composición filogenética varía según el sitio anatómico y se regula mediante factores intrínsecos y extrínsecos a lo largo de toda la vida. El equilibrio entre eubiosis y disbiosis determina en gran medida la integridad inmunológica, metabólica y neurológica del individuo. Esta revisión integra la evidencia científica más actualizada sobre la composición, desarrollo y modulación de la microbiota humana, así como sus interacciones con el sistema inmunológico, la inflamación crónica y el eje microbiota-intestino-cerebro. Se discuten mecanismos moleculares subyacentes a enfermedades metabólicas, autoinmunes, neurodegenerativas y psiquiátricas, y se analizan intervenciones terapéuticas emergentes como los psicobióticos. La comprensión integral de este ecosistema microbiano es fundamental para el desarrollo de estrategias diagnósticas y terapéuticas de nueva generación.

Snakebite envenoming is a major neglected public health problem in Panama, yet culture-independent data on the oral microbiota of medically important viperid snakes remain limited. We characterized the oral microbiota of four captive species native to Panama (Bothrops asper, Bothriechis nigroviridis, Cerrophidion sasai, and Porthidium lansbergii) using forward-read analysis of 16S rRNA V3–V4 amplicons and compositional methods. Among 68 retained oral samples, communities were dominated by Pseudomonadota, Bacillota, Actinomycetota, and Bacteroidota. Observed ASV richness differed among species (Kruskal–Wallis H = 21.87, p < 0.001), whereas no significant differences were detected in Shannon diversity or Pielou’s evenness. Richness differences require caution because sequenced negative controls were unavailable and no independent depth-aware sensitivity analysis was performed. Community composition was significantly associated with host species (PERMANOVA R² = 0.197, p = 0.001), although PERMDISP detected heterogeneous within-group dispersion (p = 0.005), requiring cautious interpretation. ANCOM-BC2 identified 21 differentially abundant genera, including Providencia, Morganella, Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, and Staphylococcus, with high relative abundance of Mycoplasma in a subset of P. lansbergii samples. These findings provide a culture-independent taxonomic baseline for future culture-based, antimicrobial-susceptibility, and paired snake-oral/human-wound investigations in Panama.