Malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by the An. gambiae complex and An. funestus group, whose distribution varies across ecological settings. Secondary species occur at lower densities, but their role in transmission may differ from one locality to another depending on local conditions. Assessing Anopheles biodiversity using ecological indices is therefore essential to characterise their diversity and relative abundance. This study investigated the biodiversity and spatial distribution of Anopheles species across the three climatic zones of Burkina Faso to guide effective vector control strategies. Indoor resting mosquitoes were collected from 67 health districts across the 13 regions of Burkina Faso between September and December 2022 using pyrethroid spray catches. A total of 30,521 Anopheles mosquitoes were identified, with An. gambiae s.l. dominating (94.4%). The Sudano-Sahelian zone recorded the highest abundance, followed by the Soudanian and Sahelian zones. Biodiversity decreased from humid southern to arid northern areas, with the Soudanian zone showing the highest diversity. Molecular analysis of 2026 An. gambiae s.l. specimens revealed marked heterogeneity: An. coluzzii predominated in Sahelian (74.9%) and Sudano-Sahelian (71.2%) zones, while An. gambiae s.s. was most frequent in the Soudanian zone (53.8%). These results highlight spatial and ecological differences in Anopheles composition across Burkina Faso and emphasize the need for locally adapted malaria vector control strategies.

Background/Objectives: Despite the increasing emergence of resistance, insecticide-based tools remain the primary method for malaria vector control in Africa. To maintain the effectiveness of these interventions, continuous monitoring and identification of novel resistance mechanisms is essential. This study aimed to investigate potential new insecticide resistance genes in the Anopheles gambiae complex. Methods: We analyzed whole-genome sequencing data from the An. gambiae 1000 Genomes Project. A broad range of genomic analysis techniques and tools were used to identify and explore genetic variation in the candidate resistance genes. Results: High haplotype homozygosity values, indicative of positive selection, were detected in a 2L chromosomal region corresponding to an aldehyde oxidase gene cluster (AGAP006220, AGAP006221, AGAP006224, AGAP006225, AGAP006226). Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been identified in these genes with frequencies up to 100%, including 569, 691, 1433, 978, and 811 non-synonymous SNPs in AGAP006220, AGAP006221, AGAP006224, AGAP006225, and AGAP006226, respectively. Copy number variations (CNVs) such as deletions and amplifications were also identified at low frequencies (<12%). Population structure analyses revealed adaptive and geographic gene flow between An. gambiae and An. coluzzii. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that aldehyde oxidase genes may contribute to insecticide resistance in An. gambiae s.l. populations. These results highlight the importance of genomic surveillance for detecting novel resistance loci and guiding the development of improved vector control strategies under changing ecological and evolutionary conditions.

Background: Anopheles funestus s.s plays a major role in sustaining residual malaria transmission in many African settings. Despite its epidemiological importance, research on its biology and developing effective control strategies is greatly hindered by the persistent challenges associated with establishing stable colonies in laboratory. Here we describe the successful establishment of a new laboratory strain in Burkina Faso (FUNBF). Methods: Adult female mosquitoes were collected in Diébougou and Soumousso using mouth and battery-powered electric aspirators. These mosquitoes were morphologically identified as belonging to the An. funestus group. Individual females were allowed to oviposit separately in 200 mL disposable cups. Female mosquitoes were then confirmed at the molecular level as An. funestus s.s. Adults were maintained at 27 ± 2 °C and 60–80% relative humidity under a 12:12 h light–dark cycle, while larvae were kept at 29 ± 2 °C under the same light–dark cycle. Fecundity and fertility were recorded for F0 and F24, whereas larval development time, emergence rate, blood-feeding rate, oviposition rate, and mating performance were assessed in F24. Results: A total of 1871 female mosquitoes were collected across two years to establish the colony. F0 and F24 showed comparable fecundity, with mean egg loads of 85.33 (95% CI: 79.43–91.24) and 78.87 (95% CI: 69.33–88.30) eggs per female, respectively. Mean egg hatching rate was 88.62 (95% CI: 85.79–91.41) and 55.20 (95% CI: 45.77–64.64) at FO and F24 respectively. The mean pupation rate was 58.5 (95% CI: 47.81–69) with a median pupation time of 15 days. Adult emergence rates were high in both sexes, with 84.0% ± 3.37% of male pupae and 85.0% ± 5.92% of female pupae successfully emerging as adults; emergence success did not differ significantly between sexes. Females showed a blood-feeding rate of 85.21 (95% CI: 40.45–104.91) with insemination and oviposition rates of 37.5 ± 5.83% ( n = 2) and 37.5 ± 9.17% ( n = 2), respectively. Mortality recorded 24 h after blood feeding was 4.51(95% CI: 0.64–8.37). FUNBF has been maintained successfully for 24 generations with sustained egg production. Conclusions: This work represents a significant advance in the domestication of An. funestus, one of the main malaria vectors in sub-Saharan Africa.

Despite the increasing emergence of resistance, insecticide-based tools remain the main strategies used so far for vector control in Africa. In the absence of more effective alternatives, monitoring and screening for new resistance mechanisms remain the main strategies to ensure the continued deployment of current vector control tools. Here, we used the whole genome sequencing data from the Anopheles gambiae 1000 Genomes Project to investigate potential novel insecticide resistance genes in the Anopheles gambiae complex. We used a broad range of genomic data analysis techniques to identify and examine genetic variation in the potential new resistance genes identified. The results showed elevated Garud H12 values in the genomic regions of the 2L chromosome corresponding to the aldehyde oxidase cluster genes (AGAP006220, AGAP006221, AGAP006224, AGAP006225 and AGAP006226). The findings show a high occurrence of the two most common haplotypes in the populations, suggesting a recent selective sweep in this region driven by positive selection. In addition, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been identified in these genes with frequencies up to 100%, including 569, 691, 1433, 978, and 811 non-synonymous SNPs in AGAP006220, AGAP006221, AGAP006224, AGAP006225, and AGAP006226, respectively. Copy number variation (CNVs) such as deletions and amplifications were also identified in these genes at low frequencies (<12%). The analysis of population structure analysis revealed evidence of adaptive and geographic gene flow between An. gambiae and An. coluzzii, confirming the historical connectivity between both species. These findings showed the potential role of aldehyde oxidase genes in the resistance of An. gambiae s.l. populations to insecticides. This study emphasized the importance of genomic surveillance for identifying new potential genes involved in the adaptation of malaria vectors to ecological changes.

Anopheles funestus group and Anopheles gambiae complexes are among the most efficient malaria vectors in Africa, thriving in a variety of environm