This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the application of various radiological modalities, with a critical comparison between human and veterinary medicine. The modalities discussed include conventional radiography, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound (US), quantitative ultrasound (QUS), positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) and micro and nano computed tomography (micro-CT, nano-CT) in clinical practice and basic research of skeletal system. Radiological imaging plays a crucial role in the diagnosis, monitoring and research of skeletal system disorders in both human and veterinary medicine. In preclinical research, advanced diagnostic imaging modalities such as micro-CT and nano-CT allow for 3D quantification of trabecular and cortical bone microarchitecture for studies in bone biology, regenerative medicine and pharmacological research. Furthermore, the integration of artificial intelligence is advancing image interpretation, precision diagnostics and disease tracking. Despite their broad utility, imaging modalities must be selected based on clinical indication, species, age and anatomical region with consideration of radiation dose, cost and availability, especially in remote regions. For this reason, clinicians and radiologists remain an irreplaceable part of diagnostic imaging.

Congenital vertebral malformations (CVM) are common in French Bulldogs and may contribute to neurological dysfunction and intervertebral disc disease (IVDD). This retrospective study evaluated the prevalence, types, and distribution of CVM using computed tomography (CT) and assessed their association with IVDD and neurological signs. CT studies of the spine (C7–S1) from 62 French Bulldogs examined between February 2020 and February 2025 were reviewed. Dogs ranged from 1.7 to 12 years of age (mean ± SD, 5.0 ± 2.4 years), and 50 (80.6%) exhibited neurological signs. Congenital vertebral malformations were identified in 57 dogs (91.9%), with hemivertebrae present in all affected dogs, transitional vertebrae in 35.1%, and articular process dysplasia in 1.8%. Thoracic hemivertebrae were detected in all dogs with CVM, most frequently as multiple lesions (94.7%), often associated with angular spinal deviations, predominantly kyphoscoliosis. Intervertebral disc disease was diagnosed in 58 dogs (93.5%), most commonly lumbar or lumbosacral, and was multiple in 86.2% of cases. Most dogs with CVM also had IVDD (93.0%), whereas only five dogs had IVDD without CVM. Significant associations were found between CVM and neurological signs (χ² = 66.24, p < 0.05), CVM and IVDD (χ² = 113.85, p < 0.05), and IVDD and neurological signs (χ² = 128.58, p < 0.05). No significant associations were observed between sex, CVM type or number, and clinical signs. These findings demonstrate a high prevalence of CVM and IVDD in French Bulldogs and support the role of CT in comprehensive spinal assessment.