Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) are viral sequences integrated into the human genome, resulting from the infection of human germ‐line cells by ancient exogenous retroviruses. Despite losing their replication and retrotransposition abilities, HERVs appear to have been co‐opted in human physiological functions while their aberrant expression is linked to human disease. The role of HERVs in multiple malignancies has been demonstrated, however, the extent to which HERV activation and expression participate in the development of cancer is not yet fully comprehended. In this review article, we discuss the presumed role of HERVs in carcinogenesis and their promising diagnostic and prognostic implications. Additionally, we explore recent data on the HERVs in cancer therapeutics, either through the manipulation of their expression, to induce antitumor innate immunity responses or as cancer immunotherapy targets. Finally, more precise and higher resolution high‐throughput sequencing approaches will further elucidate HERV participation in human physiological and pathological processes.

SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2019 in China, causing a global pandemic. Severe COVID-19 is characterized by intensive inflammatory responses, and older age is an important risk factor for unfavorable outcomes.

Background: Restrictions on movement and lockdown are measures taken in many nations, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. University students are additionally burdened by the transition to distance e-learning. The aims of the study were to investigate the prevalence of anxiety and depression in university students and to identify associated risk factors. Design and methods: An online questionnaire was administered to 2,009 students in the University of Patras, Greece, during the national lockdown. Socio-demographic, academic data, and the forced disruption of daily life were assessed along with the Greek version of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Results: Anxiety and depression prevalence was 35.8% and 51.2% respectively. Age, school of study, financial status, self-perceived health status, level of satisfaction with the state's and university's response and specific aspects in the daily routine were associated with both anxiety and depression scores. At higher odds of both depression and anxiety were students with low income, bad health status, annoyed at staying home and those who encountered difficulties with the online education system. Additional risk factors for depression were studies in humanities and social sciences, and low satisfaction with the university's response, while for anxiety were studies in agricultural sciences and absence of information about COVID-19. Conclusions: The proportion of Greek students showing depression and anxiety, during the restrictive measures, is alarming. Mental health in university students should be monitored. Mitigation strategies should focus on specific personal, academic and social variables that have been identified as protective factors.

Being responsible for almost 12% of cancers worldwide, viruses are among the oldest known and most prevalent oncogenic agents. The quality of the evidence for the in vivo tumorigenic potential of microorganisms varies, thus accordingly, viruses were classified in 4 evidence-based categories by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 2009. Since then, our understanding of the role of viruses in cancer has significantly improved, firstly due to the emergence of high throughput sequencing technologies that allowed the “brute-force” recovery of unknown viral genomes. At the same time, multi-omics approaches unravelled novel virus-host interactions in stem-cell biology. We now know that viral elements, either exogenous or endogenous, have multiple sometimes conflicting roles in human pathophysiology and the development of cancer. Here we integrate emerging evidence on viral causality in human cancer from basic mechanisms to clinical studies. We analyze viral tumorigenesis under the scope of deep-in-time human-virus evolutionary relationships and critically comment on the evidence through the eyes of clinical epidemiology, firstly by reviewing recognized oncoviruses and their mechanisms of inducing tumorigenesis, and then by examining the potential role of integrated viruses in our genome in the process of carcinogenesis.

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are the result of retroviral infections acquired millions of years ago; nowadays, they compose around 8% of human DNA. Multiple mechanisms have been employed for endogenous retroviral deactivation, rendering replication and retrotransposition defective, while some of them have been co-opted to serve host evolutionary advantages. A pleiad of mechanisms retains the delicate balance of HERV expression in modern humans. Thus, epigenetic modifications, such as DNA and histone methylation, acetylation, deamination, chromatin remodeling, and even post-transcriptional control are recruited. In this review, we aim to summarize the main HERV silencing pathways, revisit paradigms of human disease with a HERV component, and emphasize the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HERV interactions during HIV infection.