Excessive energy consumption of communication protocols in IoT/IIoT systems constitutes one of the key constraints for the operational longevity of remote sensor nodes, where radio transmission often incurs higher energy costs than data acquisition or local computation. Previous studies have remained fragmented, typically focusing on selected technologies or specific layers of the communication stack, which has hindered the development of comparable quantitative metrics across protocols. The aim of this study is to design and validate a unified evaluation framework enabling consistent assessment of both wired and wireless protocols in terms of energy efficiency, reliability, and maintenance costs. The proposed approach employs three complementary research methods: laboratory measurements on physical hardware, profiling of SBC devices, and simulations conducted in the COOJA/Powertrace environment. A Unified Comparative Method was developed, incorporating bilinear interpolation and weighted normalization, with its robustness confirmed by a Spearman rank correlation coefficient exceeding 0.9. The analysis demonstrates that MQTT-SN and CoAP (non-confirmable mode) exhibit the highest energy efficiency, whereas HTTP/3 and AMQP incur the greatest energy overhead. Results are consolidated in the ICoPEP matrix, which links protocol characteristics to four representative RS-IoT scenarios: unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), ocean buoys, meteorological stations, and urban sensor networks. The framework provides well-grounded engineering guidelines that may extend node lifetime by up to 35% through the adoption of lightweight protocol stacks and optimized sampling intervals. The principal contribution of this work is the development of a reproducible, technology-agnostic tool for comparative assessment of IoT/IIoT communication protocols. The proposed framework addresses a significant research gap in the literature and establishes a foundation for further research into the design of highly energy-efficient and reliable IoT/IIoT infrastructures, supporting scalable and long-term deployments in diverse application environments.

The energy transformation of transport infrastructure represents a significant challenge, being implemented along the TEN-T network under the introduced AFIR regulation (Regulation for the Deployment of Alternative Fuels Infrastructure). The goal of this transformation is the development of alternative fuels infrastructure deployed along the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), dedicated to light-duty electric vehicles (eLDVs) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (eHDVs). The measures undertaken must be preceded by an analytical process assessing the assumptions outlined in the AFIR regulation, defining targeted actions for achieving the regulation’s objectives, and evaluating the baseline status as well as projected conditions for the years 2025, 2027, 2030, and 2035. This assessment is essential during the planning and management stages of the energy transformation process of transport infrastructure being undertaken by individual EU Member States. Meeting the targets set by AFIR for transport infrastructure necessitates the development of appropriate research tools. The approach proposed in this article offers an innovative framework for addressing the challenges of energy transformation. The initial step involves designing a model for the energy transformation of transport infrastructure, followed by the definition of indicators to assess the implementation of AFIR objectives. This paper presents a model for the energy transformation of road transport infrastructure, defines the individual elements of the model, specifies indicators for evaluating the transformation process, and conducts a research study incorporating these components. This article aims to elucidate the core aspects of the energy transformation of transport infrastructure, identify actions aligned with achieving the objectives of the AFIR regulation, and perform an evaluation of its implementation. Additionally, the research addresses the question of how the energy transformation of road transport infrastructure is unfolding in Poland. The study is based on the structure of electric vehicles (EVs) and transport infrastructure along the TEN-T network in the territory of Poland. The current level of AFIR compliance for eLDVs for the years 2025, 2027, 2030, and 2035 is approximately 175%, 96%, 37%, and 13%, respectively. In contrast, for eHDVs, the compliance level is around 20%, 0%, and 0% for the TEN-T core network, and approximately 10%, 3%, and 0% for the TEN-T comprehensive network.