Theories suggest that external stimuli (e.g., auditory and visual) may be rendered ineffective in modulating attention when exercise intensity is high. We examined the effects of music and parkland video footage on psychological measures during and after stationary cycling at two intensities: 10% of maximal capacity below ventilatory threshold and 5% above. Participants (N = 34) were exposed to four conditions at each intensity: music only, video only, music and video, and control. Analyses revealed main effects of condition and exercise intensity for affective valence and perceived activation (p < .001), state attention (p < .05), and exercise enjoyment (p < .001). The music-only and music-and-video conditions led to the highest valence and enjoyment scores during and after exercise regardless of intensity. Findings indicate that attentional manipulations can exert a salient influence on affect and enjoyment even at intensities slightly above ventilatory threshold.

This study explored the influence of self-selected music on affect-regulated exercise intensity and remembered pleasure. A total of 17 active male and female participants (28.1 ± 9.9 years; BMI 23.8 ± 3.2 kg/m2; oxygen uptake (VO2) peak 48.73 ± 8.73 ml.min−1.kg−1) completed a maximal exercise test, and each individual’s ventilatory threshold was identified. Following this, two treadmill exercise trials were performed at an intensity that was perceived to correspond to a Feeling Scale value of +3 (i.e., “good”). Sessions with either self-selected music or no music were completed 48 hr apart and in a randomized counterbalanced order. Affective responses (Feeling Scale) and heart rate were measured during exercise and remembered pleasure was measured 5 min post exercise. Results indicated that participants selected an exercise intensity that exceeded their ventilatory threshold during the two affect-regulated exercise sessions (p = .002, d = .99). Participants exercised with greater intensity during affect-regulated exercise with music than without (p = .045; d = 1.12) while maintaining a “good” feeling. Furthermore, participants recalled the music session as more pleasurable than the no-music session (p = .001; d = .72). These results illustrate a positive ergogenic and psychological influence of music during affect-regulated exercise. Encouraging individuals to exercise at an intensity that feels “good” elicits an exercise intensity sufficient to garner cardiorespiratory benefits and may lead to improved adherence. Moreover, the use of self-selected music appears to augment this effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

There is a paucity of work addressing the distractive, affect-enhancing, and motivational influences of music and video in combination during exercise. We examined the effects of music and music-and-video on a range of psychological and psychophysical variables during treadmill running at intensities above and below ventilatory threshold (VT). Participants (N = 24) exercised at 10 % of maximal capacity below VT and 10 % above under music-only, music-and-video, and control conditions. There was a condition × intensity × time interaction for perceived activation and state motivation, and an intensity × time interaction for state attention, perceived exertion (RPE), and affective valence. The music-and-video condition elicited the highest levels of dissociation, lowest RPE, and most positive affective responses regardless of exercise intensity. Attentional manipulations influence psychological and psychophysical variables at exercise intensities above and below VT, and this effect is enhanced by the combined presentation of auditory and visual stimuli.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of music tempi on music preference, intrinsic motivation, and flow during long-duration exercise (∼ 26 min). Subjects (n = 29) selected the music of a single artist then walked at 70 % of maximum heart rate reserve (maxHRR) on a treadmill under three experimental conditions (medium tempi, fast tempi, and mixed tempi) and a no-music control. A music preference item, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and Flow State Scale-2 were completed after each trial. Data were analyzed using a mixed-model (Gender × Condition) ANOVA and MANOVA. The Gender × Condition interaction was nonsignificant in both analyses (p > 0.05). Contrary to expectations, higher preference scores were recorded for medium tempi than for mixed tempi (means: 7.8 ± 1.3 vs. 7.1 ± 1.1). The medium tempi music also yielded the highest levels of intrinsic motivation (p < 0.001). Pairwise comparisons showed that interest-enjoyment was higher for medium tempi when compared to mixed tempi, 95 % CI = 1.80 - 8.48, p = 0.001, and that each of the music preference experimental conditions yielded higher scores than the no-music control. Also, pressure-tension was lower for medium tempi compared to fast tempi, 95 % CI = - 3.44 - 0.19, p = 0.022, and for both medium and mixed tempi compared to control (95 % CI = - 5.33 - 2.89, p = 0.000; 95 % CI = - 4.24 - 0.64, p = 0.004). A main effect was found for global flow (p = 0.000) with the highest mean score evident in the medium tempi condition (14.6 ± 1.5). Follow-up comparisons indicated that the medium tempi condition yielded higher flow scores than the control, 95 % CI = 1.25 - 3.60, p = 0.000, as did fast tempi, 95 % CI = 0.89 - 3.14, p = 0.000, and mixed tempi, 95 % CI = 1.36 - 3.76, p = 0.000. It was concluded that a medium tempi music program was the most appropriate for an exercise intensity of 70 % maxHRR.

Research on methods of improving the affective experience of exercise remains limited, especially for low-active overweight adults. We investigated the effectiveness of a virtual-reality headset and headphones in improving affective responses over conventionally delivered audiovisual stimulation. Low-active, overweight adults (16 women, 5 men; age: 34.67 ± 9.62 years; body mass index: 28.56 ± 4.95 kg/m²; peak oxygen uptake for men: 29.14 ± 6.56 mL/kg/min, for women: 22.67 ± 4.52 mL/kg/min, mean ± SD) completed 15-min sessions of recumbent cycling at the ventilatory threshold: (a) high immersion (HI, virtual reality headset and headphones), (b) low immersion (LI, television screen and speakers), and (c) Control. During-exercise pleasure and post-exercise enjoyment were self-reported. Oxygenation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) was assessed with near infrared spectroscopy. Higher pleasure was reported during HI than during LI and Control (Condition × Time interaction; p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.43). Participants who reported a preference for low exercise intensity showed higher dlPFC oxygenation during Control, but this difference diminished during LI and HI (Condition × Time × Preference interaction; p = 0.036, ηp 2 = 0.10). Compared with conventionally delivered audiovisual stimulation, using a virtual-reality headset strengthens the dissociative effect, further improving affective responses to exercise at the ventilatory threshold among overweight, low-active adults. Presumably by competing with interoceptive afferents at the level of sensory input, audiovisual stimulation may lessen reliance on cognitive efforts to attenuate declining affect, as indicated by lower right dlPFC activity, particularly among participants disinclined toward high exercise intensity.