The increasing global demand for farmland products is placing unprecedented pressure on the global agricultural system and its water resources. Many regions of the world, that are affected by a chronic water scarcity relative to their population, strongly depend on the import of agricultural commodities and associated embodied (or virtual) water. The globalization of water through virtual water trade (VWT) is leading to a displacement of water use and a disconnection between human populations and the water resources they rely on. Despite the recognized importance of these phenomena in reshaping the patterns of water dependence through teleconnections between consumers and producers, their effect on global and regional water resources has just started to be quantified. This review investigates the global spatiotemporal dynamics, drivers, and impacts of VWT through an integrated analysis of surface water, groundwater, and root-zone soil moisture consumption for agricultural production; it evaluates how virtual water flows compare to the major ‘physical water fluxes’ in the Earth System; and provides a new reconceptualization of the hydrologic cycle to account also for the role of water redistribution by the hidden ‘virtual water cycle’.

Most of the human appropriation of freshwater resources is for agriculture. Water availability is a major constraint to mankind's ability to produce food. The notion of virtual water content (VWC), also known as crop water footprint, provides an effective tool to investigate the linkage between food and water resources as a function of climate, soil, and agricultural practices. The spatial variability in the virtual water content of crops is here explored, disentangling its dependency on climate and crop yields and assessing the sensitivity of VWC estimates to parameter variability and uncertainty. Here we calculate the virtual water content of four staple crops (i.e., wheat, rice, maize, and soybean) for the entire world developing a high‐resolution (5 × 5 arc min) model, and we evaluate the VWC sensitivity to input parameters. We find that food production almost entirely depends on green water (>90%), but, when applied, irrigation makes crop production more water efficient, thus requiring less water. The spatial variability of the VWC is mostly controlled by the spatial patterns of crop yields with an average correlation coefficient of 0.83. The results of the sensitivity analysis show that wheat is most sensitive to the length of the growing period, rice to reference evapotranspiration, maize and soybean to the crop planting date. The VWC sensitivity varies not only among crops, but also across the harvested areas of the world, even at the subnational scale.

Agriculture overexploits water resources in many regions, as water stress metrics highlight. Tracing back the causes of water overuses and separately accounting for soil water, surface water and groundwater resources is an open challenge to monitor the sustainability of agricultural water use. We introduce the “water debt repayment time” indicator, measuring the time required to replenish water resources used for annual crop production. This indicator disentangles source‐ and crop‐specific water overuses at a high spatial resolution. Globally, we find that wheat and rice production critically overuses groundwater resources and cotton production overuses both surface water and groundwater. Locally, unsustainable production is found over the Sabarmati Basin and in the Chao Phraya Basin, where the repayment time exceeds 5 years in many cultivated areas. Critical overuses are also found over the High Plain and Indo‐Gangetic Plains, where the repayment times reach 50 years. Unsustainable irrigation is often a consequence of growing crops during local dry seasons.

Water is crucial for meeting sustainability targets, but its unsustainable use threatens human wellbeing and the environment. Past assessments of water scarcity (i.e., water demand in exceedance of availability) have often been spatially coarse and temporally limited, reducing their utility for targeting interventions. Here we perform a detailed monthly sub-basin assessment of the evolution of blue (i.e., surface and ground) water scarcity (years 1980-2015) for the world’s three most populous countries – China, India, and the USA. Disaggregating by specific crops and sectors, we find that blue water demand rose by 60% (China), 71% (India), and 27% (USA), dominated by irrigation for a few key crops (alfalfa, maize, rice, wheat). We also find that unsustainable demand during peak months of use has increased by 101% (China), 82% (India), and 49% (USA) and that 32% (China), 61% (India), and 27% (US) of sub-basins experience at least 4 months of scarcity. These findings demonstrate that rising water demands are disproportionately being met by water resources in already stressed regions and provide a basis for targeting potential solutions that better balance the water needs of humanity and nature.