The current qualitative study examined the teacher–student interaction and its influence on children’s working memory in primary schools in Belgium and the Netherlands. Eighteen primary school teachers participated in semi-structured interviews focusing on strategies employed to support students with working memory difficulties. The study offered a comprehensive overview of the strategies, categorised into instructional support, classroom organisation, and emotional support (based on the Teaching Through Interactions framework) that teachers use when dealing with working memory-related difficulties. Additionally, it provided unique insights into teachers’ underlying beliefs and rationales about the effectiveness of these strategies. Lastly, factors influencing the use and efficacy of these strategies (based on the Multilevel Supply–Use model) were explored. By integrating teachers’ voices and experiences, this research provides a unique opportunity to bridge theory and practice, and enrich the current understanding and interpretation of the teacher–student interaction and its implications for improving working memory performance in primary school students. Overall, the holistic approach, taking into account both direct and indirect approaches, offered a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges faced by students with working memory difficulties and the diverse strategies teachers can employ to address them, which can further inform classroom practices, professional development, and policy-making.

Executive function refers to a set of cognitive processes essential for effectively managing complex tasks and enabling goal-directed behavior. Working memory (WM), one of the core executive functions, is the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information. It plays an important role in various cognitive tasks and learning processes, with WM difficulties greatly affecting students’ academic performance and overall learning. Despite clinical efforts to improve WM in primary school children, results have been inconsistent. Second-generation research has shifted focus to the role of environmental factors, such as teacher-student interactions (TSIs), as a means to better support students’ WM. Based on the Teaching through interactions framework, TSIs are categorized into three domains: instructional support, emotional support, and classroom organization. This study protocol aims to (1) elucidate the theoretical foundations of each type of support and its relationship to WM, (2) provide a comprehensive overview of the intervention procedure, with a specific focus on its development, and (3) lay the groundwork for four microtrials to explore the immediate effects of instructional support, emotional support, and classroom organization provided by the teacher, on student’s WM-related problematic behaviors and performance, compared to a teaching-as-usual (TAU) control group. Each intervention includes a coaching session followed by a 4-week implementation period, during which five high-potential strategies focused on one type of support are applied at the classroom level. To achieve this, 168 teachers, together with students (aged 6–12, exhibiting WM-related problematic behaviors) and parents will be recruited to participate in the study. After the pre-tests, the participants will be randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups or the TAU group. Post-tests will be conducted after intervention implementation. The findings are expected to enhance theoretical understanding of effective WM intervention components and contribute to the development of targeted strategies to strengthen WM in educational settings.

Working memory (WM) is crucial for learning and academic success, emphasizing the need for effective theory- and practice-informed interventions supporting children with poor WM. Given limited transferable effects, recent research stresses the importance of context, focusing on malleable environmental factors like teacher–student interaction. This study uses a microtrial approach to explore the effects of teacher-provided instructional support on children’s observable WM-related problematic behavior. The experimental group (n = 35, 42.9% girls, Mage = 8.37, SDage = 1.66) received targeted instructional support, while the control group (n = 32, 40.6% girls, Mage = 8.67, SDage = 2.03) received teaching as usual. Pre- and post-intervention comparisons examined changes in students’ WM behavior. The four-week intervention included five strategies derived from a systematic review and a qualitative study, building on teachers’ existing practices. Findings revealed a significant time × condition interaction, with reduced WM-related problematic behavior in the experimental group, showing medium to large effect sizes (η_p² = 0.08–0.20). Improvements were noted in classroom behavior and the home environment, as reported by parents blinded to the condition. This study contributes to the causal evidence base indicating that targeted instructional support can reduce WM-related challenges and highlights the potential of brief, teacher-provided classroom interventions.