Introduction: While low back pain (LBP) is most often associated with musculoskeletal issues, in a minority of cases, it can be caused by serious underlying conditions such as cancer. Recognizing malignancy early remains a major clinical challenge, as the warning signs, known as red flags (RFs), are often vague and inconsistent. Methods: A comprehensive search of six databases (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and SciELO) and grey literature was conducted for studies published from January 1999 to March 2025. Eligible sources included studies describing adult patients with cancer presenting with LBP. Study selection and data extraction were independently performed by two reviewers. Results: We included 70 studies, most of which were case-based, along with reviews and observational research. In these studies, cancer prevalence among patients with LBP ranged from 0.1% to 1.6%, with metastatic disease being the most common finding. A prior history of cancer emerged as the most reliable red flag (specificity up to 0.99), while other signs and symptoms were less consistent. Notably, combining multiple RFs, such as a history of cancer and unexplained weight loss, significantly improved the diagnostic accuracy (LR+ = 10.25 in one study). Conclusions: While current evidence is limited and largely based on case-based studies, some RFs, particularly a history of cancer, show greater diagnostic value. In patients with LBP associated with underlying malignancy, RFs seem to be more useful for ruling in rather than ruling out (i.e., screening) serious pathologies. Most RFs have poor standalone accuracy; however, considering combinations of RFs within the broader clinical context may improve early detection of spinal malignancy in patients with LBP.

Background Currently, the concept of pain is widely discussed in the scientific community, particularly chronic musculoskeletal pain. One important classification concerns the mechanisms of pain generation, according to which pain is divided into nociceptive pain, neuropathic pain, nociplastic pain (NP), and central sensitization (CS). Often the terms nociplastic pain and central sensitization are used incorrectly, as synonyms, or improperly; this can make data transmission complicated. The aim of this review will be to provide a clearer overview of the concept of pain in the scientific literature, describe the variability on the use of the terms nociplastic pain and central sensitization, and describe the mechanisms in relation to musculoskeletal pain syndromes. Inclusion Criteria Every study describing the mechanisms of nociplastic pain or central sensitization in a population of adults (> 18 years old), with acute or chronic musculoskeletal pain, in one or more anatomic regions. This scoping review will consider studies conducted in any context. Articles in English or Italian will be considered. Methods The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology (JBI) for scoping reviews. The search will be carried out on 5 databases: MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, Scopus, Embase, and PEDro. Selection and data extraction will be conducted by two blind independent researchers and inconsistencies will be resolved by a third reviewer. The results will be presented in a schematic, tabular and descriptive format that will line up with the objectives and scope of the review. Conclusions This will be the first scoping review to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic. The results will add meaningful information for clinicians. Furthermore, any knowledge gaps of the topic will be identified. The results of this research will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and will be presented at relevant (inter)national scientific events.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament injury is the most common ligament injury of the knee and one of the most serious and common injuries in sport. This injury causes a number of both short-term and longterm negative consequences that negatively impact both sports performance and quality of life in general. The literature has recognised the need to improve primary prevention with the aim of decreasing the ACL injury rate. For this reason, numerous ACL-specific prevention programmes have been proposed in recent years that include various types of exercises and different methods of administration. The main objective of this scoping will be to report what the literature tells us about these programmes and prevention for ACL injuries. Inclusion criteria: Every study about prevention programmes for LCA injury on athletes of all ages participating in professional or amateur sports will be included. This scoping review will consider studies conducted in any context. Methods: The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology (JBI) for scoping reviews. The search will be carried out on 6 databases: MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, Scopus, CINHAL, Embase, and PEDro . Selection and data extraction will be conducted by two blind independent researchers and inconsistencies will be resolved by a third reviewer. The results will be presented in a schematic, tabular and descriptive format that will line up with the objectives and scope of the review. Conclusions: This review provides a comprehensive overview of prevention for ACL injuries in sport, in particular the effectiveness of existing prevention programmes. The information provided will be useful for physiotherapists and athletic trainers during the sports season and as a therapeutic education tool. The results of this research will be published in scientific research databases.

Background: Literature already confirmed that chronic pain is not only correlated to functional deficits, structural problems or neural alterations, but it is also strongly influenced by the presence of psychological and social factors. It was also observed that those factors can have an impact on the subject even after many years: in fact, pain experiences and traumatic events during childhood can lead to changes in stress and pain neural network area and to maladaptive behaviors that concur to develop chronic pain. The main purpose of this review is to identify the bio-psycho-social risk factors in developmental age that could lead to musculoskeletal chronic pain in adulthood. Inclusion criteria: Every study about risk factors in developmental age (0-18) for the onset of musculoskeletal chronic pain in adulthood will be included. This scoping review will consider studies conducted in any context. Methods: The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology (JBI) for scoping reviews. The search will be carried out on 6 databases: MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, Scopus, CINHAL, Embase, and PEDro . Selection and data extraction will be conducted by two blind independent researchers and inconsistencies will be resolved by a third reviewer. The results will be presented in a schematic, tabular and descriptive format that will line up with the objectives and scope of the review. Conclusions: This will be the first scoping review to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic. The results will add meaningful information for clinicians especially during the patient’s assessment. Furthermore, any knowledge gaps of the topic will be identified. The results of this research will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and will be presented at relevant (inter)national scientific events.