Thesium chinense Turcz., a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, is enriched with bioactive constituents such as flavonoids and polysaccharides, demonstrating multifaceted therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects. This review systematically elucidates the regulatory mechanisms by which active components of Thesium chinense Turcz. modulate pathological processes in NDDs, such as neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Furthermore, it synthesizes evidence of its neuroprotective efficacy across experimental models and evaluates its translational potential for clinical applications. By integrating preclinical findings and mechanistic insights, this work provides a robust theoretical foundation for advancing natural product-based therapeutics in the management of NDDs.