The purpose of this paper is to examine the determinants of financial inclusion in the least developed countries in Asia and Africa. We used World Bank data to estimate the probit econometric technique in the studied countries. The results show that young people and women are groups excluded from financial inclusion and that education and income are two of the key pillars for increasing financial inclusion. Furthermore, the results reveal that a higher level of financial inclusion increases the level of official savings in countries, which in turn promotes their development. The findings of this study are beneficial for policymakers in the least developed countries to promote innovative approaches to enhance the involvement of excluded people in formal finance.

Financial inclusion is the availability, affordability and accessibility of financial services, regardless of the level of income, location or gender. Despite the efforts and commitments of the international community to reach this state, there are still challenges, especially regarding the incorporation of minority groups and the transition to sustainable financial systems. Therefore, it is important to include a gender perspective in the economic and financial analysis because women face more barriers to access and be part of the benefits and opportunities of the financial system. The following text seeks to clarify the previous premises through an analysis of the advances or setbacks in terms of financial inclusion in APEC member economies and if this positively influences the progress of the Agenda 2030. In the first section, it contextualizes the reader on financial inclusion, why it is important from a gender perspective and why it is crucial for the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The following section presents statistical evidence on financial services in the countries of the region to identify achievements and blank spaces. Subsequently, is analyzed one of the alternatives to include the most vulnerable population in the financial system microfinance, and the advances of the region are shown in a series of good practices. Finally, is indicated a section of conclusions. La inclusión financiera es la disponibilidad, asequibilidad y accesibilidad a servicios financieros de calidad, sin importar el nivel de ingreso, localidad o género. A pesar de los esfuerzos y compromisos por parte de la comunidad internacional para alcanzar este objetivo aún quedan retos, sobre todo en cuanto a la incorporación de grupos minoritarios y a la transición hacia sistemas financieros resilientes. De ahí la importancia de incluir en el análisis económico y financiero la participación de las mujeres, sobre todo porque son quienes se enfrentan a más barreras para acceder y formar parte de los beneficios y oportunidades del sistema financiero. El siguiente artículo busca puntualizar las premisas anteriores a través de un análisis de los avances o retrocesos en cuanto a inclusión financiera en economías miembro de APEC y si ello impacta positivamente en el avance de la Agenda de Desarrollo 2030. Se contextualiza al lector, en primer lugar, sobre la importancia de la inclusión financiera desde una perspectiva de género y por qué es crucial para el cumplimiento de los Objetivos del Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS). En el siguiente apartado se presenta la evidencia estadística sobre los servicios financieros en los países de la región, a fin de identificar logros y espacios en blanco. Posteriormente, se analiza una de las alternativas para incluir a la población más vulnerable en el sistema financiero a través del microfinanciamiento exponiendo las buenas prácticas adoptadas en la región. Por último, se presentan las conclusiones.

Indian banking has undergone structural changes from financial reform and the process of deregulation during the 1990s. Added to this is a new element, the COVID-19 pandemic, and its effects on the banking system. The categories of concentration and centralization of capital and the increasing instability of banking institutions will enable an assessment of banking fragility as well as the impact and repercussions of the pandemic. The economic fragility of India's banking system has been a constant over the past few decades. The objective of this article is to analyze the profitability of the banking system, the banks’ non-performing loans and the government's strategy to prevent a banking crisis.

The purpose of this introductory piece is to offer readers an understanding of Eugenia Correa, who was one of Mexico’s foremost heterodox economists, and her important ideas. In the article, we describe our professional association with her for over 30 years and identify some common research agendas that were pursued over this long period. We also highlight some key elements of Eugenia Correa’s economic thought and why some of her ideas from the 1990s prove to be prescient since they are so appropriate to understanding our times.

Why is it necessary to break with gender inequality and what is the relationship with public policies? ¿Is there an answer to that? The economies that make up the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) begin the third decade of the 21st century with great challenges. ‘Gender Equality´ is one of the challenges to be achieved in order to comply with the 2030 Agenda and ‘leave no one behind´, within the framework of a recession scenario with profound technological change based on an unequal economic structure and each more digital. Therefore, we will focus on an analysis of some indicators that allow us to demonstrate gender gaps mainly about employment. Opening a discussion space to break down barriers and favor ‘gender equality´ in the countries that make up APEC is the interest of the current opinion. Beyond the cultural patterns that do not allow the economic empowerment of women, analyzing gender gaps form the perspective of public policies is the task and responsibility of the academy, international organizations, civil society and the State. First, we discuss the importance of achieving gender equality to achieve sustained development; second the characterization of women’s employment through different indicators; finally, the digital economy and public political needs to favor women from the perspective of the feminist economy. Por qué es necesario romper con la inequidad de género y qué relación existe con las políticas públicas?, ¿hay respuesta a ello? Las economías que conforman el Foro de Cooperación Económica Asia-Pacífico (APEC por sus siglas en inglés) inician la tercera década del siglo XXI con grandes desafíos. La ‘equidad de género’ es uno de los retos a alcanzar para dar cumplimiento a la Agenda 2030 y ‘no dejar a nadie atrás’, en el marco de un panorama de recesión con cambios tecnológicos profundos a partir de una estructura económica desigual y cada vez más digital. Por ello, nos centraremos en un análisis de algunos indicadores que permiten demostrar las brechas de género principalmente en relación al empleo. Abrir un espacio de discusión para romper barreras y favorecer la ‘equidad de género’ en los países que conforman APEC es el interés de la presente opinión. Más allá de patrones culturales que no permiten el empoderamiento económico de las mujeres, analizar las brechas de género bajo la perspectiva de las políticas públicas es tarea y responsabilidad de la academia, organismos internacionales, sociedad civil y del Estado. A continuación, se pondrá en la discusión en primer lugar, la importancia de alcanzar necesariamente la ‘equidad de género’ para lograr un desarrollo sostenido; segundo, la caracterización del empleo de las mujeres a través de diferentes indicadores; por último, la economía digital y las necesarias políticas públicas para favorecer a las mujeres desde la perspectiva de la economía feminista.