Termites are widely used as a food resource, particularly in Africa and Asia. Markets for insects as food are also expanding worldwide. To inform the development of insect-based foods, we analysed selected minerals (Fe-Mn-Zn-Cu-Mg) in wild-harvested and commercially available termites. Mineral values were compared to selected commercially available insects. Alate termites, of the genera Macrotermes and Odontotermes, showed remarkably high manganese (Mn) content (292–515 mg/100 gdw), roughly 50–100 times the concentrations detected in other insects. Other mineral elements occur at moderate concentrations in all insects examined. On further examination, the Mn is located primarily in the abdomens of the Macrotermes subhyalinus; with scanning electron microscopy revealing small spherical structures highly enriched for Mn. We identify the fungus comb, of Macrotermes subhyanus, as a potential biological source of the high Mn concentrations. Consuming even small quantities of termite alates could exceed current upper recommended intakes for Mn in both adults and children. Given the widespread use of termites as food, a better understanding the sources, distribution and bio-availability of these high Mn concentrations in termite alates is needed.

Microsporidia are disease-causing organisms that can infect invertebrate species. In apiculture, two microsporidians of importance are Vairimorpha (=Nosema) ceranae and Vairimorpha (=Nosema) apis. The taxonomy surrounding the genus assignment of these species has been heavily debated, due to molecular systematic and socio-economic reasons. We provide an update to this debate by developing a 508-gene concatenated protein phylogeny, and a 277-gene concatenated nucleotide phylogeny, to show that these parasites show strong phylogenetic positioning with the Vairimorpha genus and its type species Vairimorpha necatrix. Despite this assignment, we suggest that the terms 'nosema-disease', 'nosemosis' and 'nosematosis' should still be viable for use within apiculture, and be named after the family Nosematidae in which V. ceranae and V. apis sit, instead of the previous genus assignment: Nosema.

Mycoviruses are widely distributed among different groups of filamentous fungi. An awareness of infections caused by mycoviruses was highlighted in the 1980s and 1990s, when the impact of these agents on phenotypes of agriculturally and medically important fungi was reported. However, for entomopathogenic fungi, mycovirus research has only expanded significantly in the last 15 years. Due to the agricultural importance of these fungi, reflected in their use at the forefront of biological control strategies, recent studies have extensively described novel viruses and their effects on their hosts in terms of altered morphological, phenotypical, and ecological characteristics. To summarise the historical progress of mycovirology and recent discoveries, here we describe the state of the art in the study of mycoviruses associated with entomopathogenic fungi. We have limited the review to the occurrence of mycoviruses in fungi of the genera Beauveria, Cordyceps, Entomophthora, Metarhizium, and Trichoderma and have compiled an inventory of the viruses reported to infect these entomopathogenic genera, as well as a comprehensive review of the biological effects described with respect to infection by mycoviruses in fungi that are relevant to the biological control of insects. Finally, we have outlined possible research scenarios in the light of recent discoveries in the field of mycovirology, such as the use of mycoviruses as virulence modulating factors: the main character sought in biological pest control.

Host manipulation by pathogens and parasites is a widespread phenomenon, but the molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. We investigated the summiting disease caused by the fungus Entomophthora muscae in houseflies, where infected flies climb to elevated positions and die, releasing infectious conidia. We performed dual-RNA sequencing of fly heads at different time points and identified candidate genes from both the host and the pathogen that may be involved in this summiting phenotype. Surprisingly, we also detected an extremely high abundance of a novel positive sense single-stranded (+ss) RNA Iflavirus in infected fly heads. We show that the virus load increases over time and shows signs of accumulation in fly heads and thoraces. We also reveal predicted interactions between fungal secreted proteins and insect host proteins related to neurological and immune functions, suggesting a possible role of these proteins in host manipulation. Furthermore, we find that E. muscae encodes a homologue of ecdysteroid UDP-glucosyltransferase (egt), a gene that has been implicated in host manipulation by other pathogens. Our study reveals a complex interplay between a fungus, a virus and a fly, and suggests that convergent evolution of egt for host manipulation mechanisms may occur in different pathogens.

Insect pathogenic fungi (IPF) and insects have ubiquitous interactions in nature. The extent of these interkingdom host-pathogen interactions are both complex and diverse. Some IPF, notably of the order Entomophthorales, manipulate their species-specific host before death. The fungus-induced altered insect behaviours are sequential and can accurately be repeatedly characterised temporally, making them a valuable model for understanding the molecular and chemical underpinnings of behaviour and host-pathogen co-evolutionary biology. Here, we present methods for the isolation and laboratory culturing of the emerging behaviourally manipulating model IPF Entomophthora muscae for experimentation. • E. muscae isolation and culturing in vitro. • Establishing and maintaining an E. muscae culture in vivo in houseflies (Musca domestica). • Controlled E. muscae infections for virulence experiments and quantification of conidia discharge per cadaver.

Many entomopathogenic fungi cause infections that kill their insect host. Little is understood about changes in the reproductive investment that occurs during an infection by a lethal disease over the waning life of an insect. Life-history theory suggests the host will respond by investing resources into fighting the disease or increasing reproduction. Here, we investigate how the reproductive life of adult house flies, Musca domestica, is impacted by its host-specific fungal pathogen, Entomophthora muscae. Specifically, we test how the week-long infection alters the mating behavior of virgin adult male house flies. We find that the pathogen significantly decreases male libido, an effect which grows stronger over the course of the infection. Furthermore, females were significantly less likely to choose an infected male, reducing male mating success. Additionally, we assessed sperm viability to understand the reproductive costs for monandrous females to mate with infected males. Analyses revealed that sperm quality decreases as early as 3 days post-infection. These results show that E. muscae, which can have a prevalence near 100% in wild populations, causes severe lifetime reproductive costs to male house flies. Understanding how host–pathogen interactions affect host life history is crucial for elucidating all the negative effects pathogen virulence exerts on hosts.