The Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) is the most abundant nocturnal raptor in Europe. It has been thoroughly studied in various regions, but its habitat preferences in Mediterranean environments remain poorly understood. With the aim to present novel information about this aspect of the ecology of the Tawny Owl, we established 115 survey stations in the Special Conservancy Area “Sierras de Talayuelas y Aliaguilla” (Castilla–La Mancha region, eastern Spain) and carried out nocturnal surveys by recording spontaneous calls and vocal responses to call playbacks. We then assessed environmental characteristics (vegetation types, soil type, altitude, potential competitors, and anthropic disturbance) in areas where owls were detected or not detected during the breeding season. Overall, we detected 60 responding owls at 49 survey stations during breeding season in the study area (i.e., density 1.22 owls/km2). We found that Tawny Owls preferred lower altitudes and patchy heterogeneous areas. Owls seemed to avoid natural grasslands and areas characterized by limestone soils and associated vegetation, and preferred areas characterized by clay soils and associated vegetation. Interestingly, we did not detect owls close to wind farms, which seem to create a buffer effect on owls’ occurrence. The noise generated by the turbines might be a limiting factor that could account for this avoidance. Our multivariate results showed that Tawny Owls preferred heterogeneous patchy habitat but avoided non-irrigated arable land. Tawny Owls inhabit Mediterranean landscapes where conditions are favorable, but human activities such as wind farms may limit their distribution. Additional research is needed to determine the drivers of this avoidance and whether Tawny Owls also avoid wind farms in other regions of their range.

Adjustment of reproductive timing within the annual cycle is a crucial issue for both offspring and parents’ survival, and breeding success. Early laying date is closely related to successful breeding outcome and better survival. Obtaining long datasets on threatened long-lived species’ breeding performance can contribute to their conservation. Using field observations and telemetry information, here we analyse how laying date of an endangered long-lived raptor varies with nest characteristics, individual factors and climatic variables during an 18-year (2004–2021) study period in eastern Spain. To this end, we estimated how environmental and individual variables affect laying date. Our results showed that average laying date in our study area took place on February 17th. Laying date showed no trend during the study period. Nests placed in higher elevations showed delayed laying dates. Territories occupied by adults with previous successful experience and high brood size showed earlier laying dates. Current year laying date was highly correlated with previous year laying date. Colder territories delayed laying date and the minimum temperature of the previous December were negatively correlated to previous laying date. Our results highlight the importance of experienced birds able to adjust timing of reproduction to maximise biological fitness. High adult mortality allows sub-adults to settle as breeders and jeopardises species’ persistence. Therefore, the reduction of mortality of territorial birds is of the outmost importance to improve the conservation status of declining long-lived species such as the Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata).

The conservation of endangered species is a crucial topic in conservation biology due to the important ecological roles these species play in their respective ecosystems. Top predators are particularly vulnerable to the variation in environmental conditions. The Bonelli’s Eagle (Aquila fasciata) is a long-lived bird of prey that fulfills its role as a top predator in Mediterranean ecosystems, but its overall population has declined in the Iberian Peninsula in recent decades. As with other long-lived species, the Bonelli’s Eagle reaches its maximum fitness at maturity, highlighting the importance of assessing how intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect population dynamics over time. In this study, we conducted annual surveys of a Bonelli’s Eagle subpopulation in the eastern Iberian Peninsula from 2002 to 2021. Our results indicate that the large decline observed in the number of occupied territories, fledged chicks, and successful pairs is not due to negative density-dependent effects but rather influenced by various environmental and demographic factors. These factors include breeders’ age, nest site characteristics, climatic conditions, and previous breeding costs. We found that productivity was higher in territories with high winter precipitation and temperatures, as well as in coastal areas, leading to earlier laying dates. Additionally, the presence of subadult individuals in the breeding pair decreased breeding performance. Interestingly, the variability in the number of fledglings in each territory was driven by previous breeding costs. Prioritizing efforts to mitigate adult mortality and conserve suitable habitats becomes imperative to halt the ongoing decline of this population and also to enhance productivity, ultimately facilitating the restoration of the species to previous population levels.

In eastern Spain, Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) abundance has declined almost 50% in the last 25 years and, consequently, the species is listed as regionally endangered. Therefore, the aim of this study is to report the mortality causes of territorial breeding Bonelli's eagles, including the spatial and temporal patterns, and to assess the effects on population dynamics. From 2015–2023, we tracked 60 Bonelli's eagles via global positioning system‐global system for mobile communications (GPS‐GSM) telemetry; 33 of the eagles died (median survival time = 1,519 days). Survival did not differ in relation to sex, age at capture (subadult vs. adult birds), breeding site (coastland vs. inland territories), or transmitter's model. One‐year probability of survival (95% CI) was 0.716 (0.607–0.845); 2‐year survival was 0.640 (0.524–0.781); and 3‐year survival was 0.581 (0.464–0.729). Anthropogenic mortality (66.7% of cases) prevailed over natural (27.3%) and unknown causes (6.0%). Causes of mortality were intra‐ and interspecific predation (24.2% of cases), electrocution (18.2%), poisoning (15.1%), collision with power lines (9.1%), shooting (9.1%), drowning (9.1%), collision with other man‐made infrastructure (6.1%), and disease (3.0%). Deaths were most frequent during the early breeding season. Only 2 (6.1%) of 33 deaths recorded occurred within a protected area. Natural causes of mortality were more frequent away from the Mediterranean coast. In contrast, anthropogenic deaths were more frequent near the Mediterranean coast, where human population density is high. We estimated that probability of extirpation of the species in our study area is 17.8% in the next 50 years and 99.2% in 100 years. Nonetheless, a small reduction in adult mortality by ≥15% could prevent extirpation in the next 50 years. Therefore, actions to reduce adult mortality are urgently needed to preserve the Bonelli's eagle in eastern Spain.

Species life history and anthropogenic influence are important drivers of population performance and viability in human‐dominated ecosystems. How these factors affect habitat selection and occupancy in long‐lived species is an important topic for their conservation. Long‐term datasets are needed for establishing the underlying drivers of this process. In this 22 year‐long study, we conducted annual surveys of Bonelli's eagle in the east of the Iberian Peninsula. During this period, 42.8% of the known territories remained unoccupied. Territories with a higher likelihood of raising two chicks over time were stable, evidenced by a lower coefficient of variation in productivity, and were more likely to remain occupied. Moreover, territories with lower habitat diversity, dominated by coniferous forest or agricultural fields, and those located further away from the coast and at higher altitudes showed lower rates of occupancy (i.e., unoccupied >3 consecutive years). To validate these associations, we monitored space use of 22 individuals equipped with Global Positioning System/Global System for Mobile (GPS/GSM) transmitters, which confirmed that eagles selected for open habitats (mainly scrublands and transitional woodland‐scrubs) intermixed with forest areas within their home ranges. In contrast, individuals avoided areas dominated by agricultural, urban, and continuous forests for breeding in line with the observations for unoccupied territories. Our results highlight the important interplay between natural and anthropogenic factors, which also have important implications for other raptor species. Preservation of the most productive territories and the re‐occupancy of unoccupied territories along with reducing threats in the preferred habitats are fundamental actions that should be taken immediately to sustain viable populations. Potential management actions include enhancing natural prey density through habitat restoration and conservation, mitigating threats and reducing mortality risks due to power lines, fences, poisoning, and maintaining habitat heterogeneity important to eagles' hunting activities.

The Red Kite (Milvus milvus), a Western Palearctic raptor, experienced a severe population decline across its range during the 19th and 20th centuries, nearly disappearing as a breeding species in Spain. Although conservation and reintroduction efforts have facilitated recovery, information on its wintering ecology remains limited. We evaluated the population size and habitat selection of wintering Red Kites in and around the La Mancha Húmeda Biosphere Reserve (MHBR), Central Spain, and assessed whether survey route type affected detectability. Surveys comprised 325 vehicle-based line transects along paved roads and dirt tracks during the winters of 2021–2022 and 2022–2023, and the 2022 breeding season. Detection rates and density did not differ between route types. Across 212 winter transects, we recorded 124 individuals, with none detected during 113 breeding season transects. Density estimates were consistent across winters (1.3–1.4 individuals/km²), yielding a population estimate of approximately 1430 individuals. Habitat analysis indicated clear selection for open agricultural mosaics dominated by fallow land and vineyards, while rugged terrain was avoided. These results identify MHBR as an important wintering area. Yet, super-intensive agriculture is a poor habitat due to its uniformity. Enhancing heterogeneous open landscapes, including farmland, is essential for Red Kite colonization and expansion.