Background: Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) after strenuous exercise can impair neuromuscular function and increase muscle soreness. Although cold-water immersion (CWI), massage, and active recovery are widely used, their comparative effects across recovery time windows remain unclear. Objective: We aimed to compare and rank the effects of post-exercise physical recovery strategies on countermovement jump (CMJ), delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and creatine kinase (CK) during acute and delayed recovery. Methods: A systematic review and frequentist network meta-analysis were conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 and the PRISMA extension for network meta-analyses. Five databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Cochrane Library, and Scopus) were searched. The study protocol and prespecified methods were publicly archived on the Open Science Framework (OSF, DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/ASWU6). Outcomes were grouped into an acute phase (0–24 h) and a delayed phase (48–72 h). The primary analysis was restricted to the connected main network anchored by passive control. Random-effects models were used to calculate effect sizes with 95% confidence intervals, and P-scores were used to rank interventions. Results: In the acute phase, active recovery and CWI demonstrated the largest effect sizes for CMJ recovery at 24 h, though confidence intervals were wide. For DOMS, both CWI and massage showed beneficial effects immediately after exercise and at 24 h. CWI also reduced CK immediately after exercise and at 24 h. In the delayed phase, most effects diminished, with no significant benefit for CMJ or CK; however, CWI remained associated with lower DOMS at 48 h. Conclusions: Recovery effects appear to be strongly time-dependent. Active recovery may be preferable for short-term restoration of explosive performance, massage for early soreness relief, and CWI for broader short-term recovery support.

This study systematically examined the effects of Tai Chi exercise on bone health in menopausal women, with subgroup analyses of potential moderators. A systematic search was conducted across nine databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EBSCO-Medline, EBSCO-Sportdiscus, Embase, CNKI, VIP and Wanfang Data) on June 1 and updated on 14 September 2025 to identify controlled trials evaluating perimenopausal or postmenopausal women. A three-level meta-analysis was performed to pool effect estimates, reported as standardized mean differences (SMDs), with heterogeneity further explored through subgroup analyses. Across 16 studies involving 1091 participants aged 49–64 years, Tai Chi interventions led to significant improvements in bone health. Training protocols ranged from 6 to 104 weeks, with sessions lasting 30 to 90 min. Bone mineral density (BMD) improved significantly at the femoral neck (SMD = 0.50), greater trochanter (SMD = 0.61), and lumbar spine L2–L4 (SMD = 0.81), with stronger effects observed in perimenopausal women. Bone mineral content (BMC) also increased significantly in menopausal women (SMD = 1.63, I² = 91.46%), although heterogeneity was substantial, and no significant differences were detected in subgroup moderators. In contrast, no significant effects were found for bone mineral metabolism (p = 0.38) or bone turnover markers (p = 0.25). According to GRADE assessments, the certainty of evidence ranged from low to moderate across these outcomes. In conclusion, while Tai Chi has been shown to improve BMD and BMC in menopausal women, the relatively high heterogeneity observed for BMC necessitates cautious interpretation of these particular outcomes. In contrast, no statistically significant effects were observed on bone mineral metabolism (BMM) and bone turnover markers (BTMs). Notably, given the significant differences observed between perimenopausal and postmenopausal women, future well-designed studies that stratify participants by menopausal status and possess adequate statistical power are needed to further explore the potential differential effects of Tai Chi on bone health.